tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-20697312351125459102024-03-27T10:15:44.499+01:00Tankesmia Grønn FaseVi er en gruppe studenter og phd-stipendiater som jobber med fornybar energi innenfor mange forskjellige fagtradisjoner. Vi vil jobbe for at Norge skal bli et foregangsland gjennom utviklingen av et nytt og mer miljøvennlig energisystem. Vi ønsker en opplyst klimadebatt og helhetlige løsninger på problemene.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04493280544812589178noreply@blogger.comBlogger84125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2069731235112545910.post-49704500402238363982016-06-06T10:14:00.001+02:002016-06-06T10:18:36.654+02:00Grønn pris for revolusjonerende generator<h3>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "courier new" , "courier" , monospace;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Av Atle Abelsen, Teknomedia</span></span></span> </h3>
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<h4>
Pål Keim Olsen har mottatt Grønn Fases Energipris 2016. Hans
innovasjonsbragd er en generator som kan øke energiutbyttet fra havvindturbiner
med opptil fire prosent.</h4>
– Årets vinner har vist en uvanlig kreativitet og
innovasjon, sier avdelingsdirektør Rune Volla i Forskningsrådet om
prisvinnerens bidrag.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Det kom i år inn
17 forslag fra kandidatene på master- og doktorgradsnivå, og Pål Keim Olsens
revolusjonerende høyspenningsgenerator for offshore vind var i en klasse for
seg.
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhotGkeaG_8HNbyK60ZNRB3GLgxnQdd3OIDaYCvPglAUmxmknCIK-xtQiEqekrzFr5ht3faGfrQkVZ9l6VIZ5_aWd9v_aXbSup-aEzylCFwI44bL7rGXCxxnnJJUcbOPPw25yHiBYxlPCIm/s1600/DSC03997.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="266" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhotGkeaG_8HNbyK60ZNRB3GLgxnQdd3OIDaYCvPglAUmxmknCIK-xtQiEqekrzFr5ht3faGfrQkVZ9l6VIZ5_aWd9v_aXbSup-aEzylCFwI44bL7rGXCxxnnJJUcbOPPw25yHiBYxlPCIm/s400/DSC03997.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Christer Heen Skotland mottar Grønn Fases Energipris 2016 på
vegne av vinneren, Pål Keim Olsen. <br />Avdelingsdirektør Rune Volla i
Forskningsrådet deler ut prisen. <br />Prisvinneren Pål Keim Olsen var på reise og
kunne ikke møte personlig. Foto: Atle Abelsen</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Olsen har allerede patentert konseptet. Hans kollega
Christer Heen Skotland, som i Olsens fravær mottok prisen på vegne av ham,
forteller at samarbeidet mellom industrien og forskningen på NTNU har vært av
avgjørende betydning for ham.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
– Pål forsikrer at premiepengene vil gå inn i de budsjettene
som har med videre samarbeid mellom industri og forskning å gjøre, sier han.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<h4 class="MsoNormal">
Juryens begrunnelse</h4>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Programkoordinator Ane Brunvoll i ENERGIX deltok i juryen,
og forteller at de ble imponerte av hvor stor effekt vinnerforslaget kan ha
dersom det blir realisert. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<a name='more'></a><br />
- Vinneren har levert et på alle måter spennende bidrag, som
skilte seg ut i bunken av gode forslag vi mottok til konkurransen, både når det
gjelder teknisk nivå, dokumentasjon og presentasjon forøvrig. Det er en god
idé, med stort potensiale, og vinneren har kommet langt i innovasjonsprosessen,
og blant annet fått patent på teknologien, sier Brunvoll.<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Bidraget er en ny type høyspenningsgenerator som gir
mulighet til å generere høy likespenning i første steget i energikjeden, noe
som fører til en drastisk reduksjon i antallet steg hvor spenningen må
omformes, som igjen fører til mindre tap i overføringen, og høyere
systempålitelighet. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
I offshore kraftsystemer benyttes sjøkabler til å overføre
strøm, og ved lange overføringsavstander vil likestrøm være den beste løsning
med hensyn til utnyttelse (transportkapasitet) og reduserte energitap i
kabelen.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Teknologien kan f.eks. gi mulighet til å øke energiutbyttet
i en offshore vindpark med 2-4%. Den har og potensialet til å oppnå høyere
pålitelighet, lavere investeringer og lavere vedlikeholdskostnader. Vindmøllene
kan også oppnå høyere oppetid, og pga. modulisering har teknologien potensial
til å bidra til enklere masseproduksjon og offshore logistikk. Om teknologien
tas i bruk, vil det bidra til at offshore vind kan levere mer ren elektrisk
energi til et samfunn som trenger det.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<h4 class="MsoNormal">
Om juryen og prisen</h4>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Juryen har bestått av Yngve Birkelund (UiT – Norges arktiske
universitet), Arne M. Bredesen (NTNU), Ane T. Brunvoll (Forskningsrådet), Kari
Aa. Espegren (IFE - Institutt for energiteknikk), Anita Fossdal (Enova SF),
Truls Norby (UiO) og Nils A. Røkke (SINTEF).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Prisen er på 50.000 kroner, og tildeles annethvert år av
tankesmia Grønn Fase. Prisen går til beste idé, konsept eller prosjektskisse
som fremmer miljøvennlig energi eller energiforbruk. Alle studenter og
stipendiater ved norske høyskoler og universiteter har hatt anledning til å delta,
og idéen har kunnet være alt fra en revolusjonerende, teknologisk løsning for
hvordan man kan produsere miljøvennlig energi, til en idé om hvordan man kan
endre folks engasjement med fornybar energi eller energisparing. Forslagene
kunne være knyttet til eget master- eller doktorgradsarbeid, men det har ikke vært
en forutsetning. Det sentrale har vært at konseptet kan sies å være nyskapende,
og at det er gjennomførbart. Årets pris er den fjerde i rekken.</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04493280544812589178noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2069731235112545910.post-61350324747226891092015-02-25T10:02:00.003+01:002015-02-25T10:09:55.610+01:00Bringing environmental knowledge into action!<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;">By Lina H. Ingeborgrud(<a href="http://www.ntnu.no/ansatte/lina.ingeborgrud">http://www.ntnu.no/ansatte/lina.ingeborgrud</a>), PhD Candidate at Center for Technology and Society Department of interdiciplinary studies of culture, NTNU</span><br />
<br />
<h4>
Exploring “Cities of the future” and local transportation systems through <i>environmental knowledge management </i></h4>
<h4>
<i><br /></i> </h4>
<h4>
Introduction </h4>
In BREV (bringing environmental knowledge into action) we study environmental knowledge management in Norwegian municipalities. This means how municipal employees learn and acquire environmental knowledge, how this knowledge is shared and made use of and how it is brought into plans and strategies. First we study a national initiative called “Cities of the future”. The purpose is to examine what kind of input to local environmental knowledge management that may be produced through national policy-making. Second we will take a sector approach to investigate how environmental knowledge management is performed in the transportation sector, which we see as a particularly important and pertinent area of concern with respect to sustainability. We have chosen Bergen and Trondheim and their transportation programs, respectively “Bergensprogrammet” and “Miljøpakken”. <br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjABkB6dGRzgcw7FWfKbTGlOCAivDApMv2mV1mBG7XRlY3ZPnx3TIrSxOmuQwS-sFCqBaljnsSxNlBdvpc28rAfNKfYOXTY_Eb8V8vXflGJfjx-gNLxTgT0LONGAC7diBzpuzOG7sbfnrWh/s1600/Illustrasjon_FB2.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjABkB6dGRzgcw7FWfKbTGlOCAivDApMv2mV1mBG7XRlY3ZPnx3TIrSxOmuQwS-sFCqBaljnsSxNlBdvpc28rAfNKfYOXTY_Eb8V8vXflGJfjx-gNLxTgT0LONGAC7diBzpuzOG7sbfnrWh/s1600/Illustrasjon_FB2.png" /></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<h4>
</h4>
<h4>
Background and objectives</h4>
Our point of departure is that the enactment of environmental knowledge raises a fairly wide-ranging set of problems.<br />
<br />
<a name='more'></a>Our empirical concern is that climate science is difficult to understand, use and translate into policies. This is partly because of a lack of collaboration and ’bureaucratic technologies’, like guidelines and regulations. Further as a theoretical concern we assume that the dominant accounts of knowledge transfer are too narrow, and propose to study the problem with uptake and transfer of environmental knowledge under the label of environmental knowledge management. We would like to explore how environmental knowledge is understood and made use of in projects to promote and improve sustainability, like in our case study “Cities of the future”. This was a Norwegian collaboration program between the 13 largest cities in Norway, four ministries, the Norwegian Association of Local and Regional Authorities and private sector, running from 2008 to 2014. <br />
<br />
The project addresses the significance of and the interaction between different forms of knowledge (scientific knowledge, professional knowledge, experience-based knowledge, knowledge from lay-people) and how this interaction is co-produced with values, concerns and politics.<br />
<br />
<h4>
Results</h4>
Our assumption is that cities of the future are not stable and bounded entities, but objects continuously made through diverse and situated practices. We consider one of these practices as framing, and as we conducted a media analysis from the online archive <a href="http://www.retriever.no/" target="_blank">Retriever</a>, we found two main framings of “Cities of the future”: in the first one “the hopeful city” Cities of the future is described as a great possibility in developing urban areas. This in contrast to the framing of “the vulnerable city”, were Cities of the future is rather looked upon as necessity, highlighting mitigation approaches. The controversies within the framing stories deal with densification of cities, tensions between national and local responsibilities and collaboration in the program, and what part users will play in these future cities. Cities of the future had to an extent an aim to engage citizens in urban development, but the program failed in user involvement, according to some of our respondents. Democratic citizenship is of great interest here: in the media stories users are described as hopeful and collaborative, but also non-cooperative and pessimistic to the life in Cities of the future. Regarding the level of user involvement, this represents a democratic challenge. <br />
<br />
<h4>
Usefulness and application</h4>
In November 2014 we arranged a workshop with representatives from municipalities, ministries, KS, directorates and scientists. Here we discussed municipalities` ability to deal with climate change in general, and climate adaptation more specific. In BREV we have an aim to engage and collaborate with people dealing with these issues daily, to integrate their concerns and experiences. We will arrange at least one more workshop with participants during the project period. Previously, knowledge management has been studied in so-called knowledge-intensive service industries. We want to turn this set of approaches to be concerned with local governments’ work with environmental issues. Many municipalities lack the sufficient knowledge to handle the range of environmental concerns. Weaknesses in the knowledge transfer processes has been explained through lack of communication, lack of access to information, lack of dialogue, as well as lack of intermediaries or boundary organizations. There is clearly a need to know more about how environmental knowledge “travels” both within local government as well as between municipalities and other actors. <br />
<br />
<h4>
About the project: </h4>
BREV is a three-year research project, running from 2014-2017. The project is funded by The Norwegian Research Council, in the “Miljø2015” program. <br />
<br />
Three researches are involved in the project: <br />
Vivian Anette Lagesen: Project leader and supervisor <br />
Lucia Liste: Post.doc <br />
Lina Ingeborgrud: PhD candidate <br />
<br />
<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04493280544812589178noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2069731235112545910.post-22121988551208865582015-01-16T13:30:00.001+01:002015-01-19T10:06:43.505+01:00Crafting climate transitions from below <span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;">By <a href="http://www.ntnu.no/ansatte/roger.soraa" target="_blank">Roger Andre Søraa</a>,
PhD candidate at Center for Technology and Society Department of
Interdisciplinary Studies of Culture, NTNU.
</span><br />
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The role of craftspeople in climate-friendly buildings</h4>
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There are about 2.4 million private-residences in Norway. Altogether,
Norwegian buildings account for approximately 40% of all land-energy usage. Building
and renovating to more climate-friendly houses, for example passive-houses and
low-energy houses, can greatly lower the national energy usage. Many
interesting projects have been made and are underway, like Powerhouse Brattøra,
shown below. </div>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZVdtUcG-sU9wM_aEy_MFw4mG4BM2net8GwmzU3Ojh4mL43TV9A-oORCQHoceU9mt9dqKBLDh4s62R82siFyB95pSi6BGY5dMehYI54s1kzZvoZBP4RVz-0Jt7LVLxnp2QvFjbLNknywjj/s1600/powerhousebilde.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZVdtUcG-sU9wM_aEy_MFw4mG4BM2net8GwmzU3Ojh4mL43TV9A-oORCQHoceU9mt9dqKBLDh4s62R82siFyB95pSi6BGY5dMehYI54s1kzZvoZBP4RVz-0Jt7LVLxnp2QvFjbLNknywjj/s1600/powerhousebilde.jpg" height="400" width="400" /></a></div>
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But who will do the actual building, and what is their role? </div>
<a name='more'></a>
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One thing is to state climate-friendlier houses as a
political goal, another is to actually implement it in society. This requires
an enrollment of many different actors, from architects, engineers and
policy-makers – to craftspeople who will do the actual renovating or building
of the houses. An important political goal has been to increase craftspeople’s
knowledge and expertise as energy-advisors, particularly through the
<a href="http://www.lavenergiprogrammet.no/" target="_blank">Low-Energy-Program</a>
and <a href="http://www.enova.no/" target="_blank">Enova</a>. </div>
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This program aims to educate, register and list craftspeople
(and others with similar expertise) as energy-advisors. Buildings- and house
owners are then able to search and contact these advisors through the programs
web-page. There are also other ways to call oneself a energy-advisor, as the
title is not protected.</div>
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Our project aims to research the role of craftspeople as
energy-advisors. What is their expertise? Are their voices heard, if so, in
which way? How does the status of craftspeople affect the situation, and how is
craft-professions represented in society? We are also discussing how Norway can
strengthen its craft-education, by comparing with other countries.</div>
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<br /></div>
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This will primarily be done by interviewing and observing
craftspeople at work as energy advisors. Most research on the topic is done top-down,
going from policy-makers, but here we wish to take the opposite approach – as
one cannot build a roof without walls. Our grounding is that craftspeople, who
build both walls and roofs eventually, needs to be taken into account when
discussing (and solving?) the building controversies of the future. </div>
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To read more about the project, please visit our <a href="http://www.craftingclimate.com/" target="_blank">homepage</a>.</div>
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References </div>
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<a href="http://www.ssb.no/bygg-bolig-og-eiendom/statistikker/boligstat/aar/2013-07-12" target="_blank">http://www.ssb.no/bygg-bolig-og-eiendom/statistikker/boligstat/aar/2013-07-12</a>
</div>
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<a href="http://www.boligenok.no/teknisk-informasjon/passivhus/" target="_blank">http://www.boligenok.no/teknisk-informasjon/passivhus/</a>
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<![endif]-->Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04493280544812589178noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2069731235112545910.post-66470130524462444842014-11-27T15:24:00.000+01:002014-11-27T15:28:35.791+01:00The new combination of solar cells and supercapacitors<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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Renewable Energy 2014, NORREN</span><br />
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The world’s climate is subject to change through the emission
of greenhouse gases such as CO2, which has increased rapidly over the past
decades. The share of renewable energy sources in the world’s power supply need
to increase in order to reduce CO2-emissions and global warming. Many of the
renewable energy sources are intermittent sources – meaning that it is not
possible to predict when they will produce electricity. For instance the power
production of a solar cell depends on the weather conditions. If it is
completely cloudy there is not much production, but if the day is a partly
clouded one the production rate can vary a lot. This is illustrated by Figure 1
(a), showing the power production of a solar cell on a partly cloudy day. An
energy storage system is needed to store energy during excess production, and
to deliver energy in times of energy deficit. While lithium-ion and nickel
metal hybrid batteries can store large amounts of energy (up to 180 Wh/kg),
they fall short during rapid changes in production and load. Supercapacitors can
complement the battery in a hybridized energy storage system for solar cells,
such as to supply the necessary high power when needed and hence increase the
battery lifetime (Glavin et al., 2008), or they can smooth the power output from
solar cells such as to reduce the voltage peaks and stabilize the voltage to
the grid (Figure 1 (b)). Simulations done by Björn Veit and Thomas Hempel in
our group work also proves that supercapacitors works very well in responding to
the solar cell power output as shown in Figure 1 (c)).</div>
<br />
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Figure 1. (a) Power production from a solar cell on a
partly cloudy day, (b) power smoothing (red curve) by using supercapacitors,
and (c) the simulation scheme using supercapacitors integrated with solar cell
module.</div>
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<![endif]-->Supercapacitors</h4>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Supercapacitors are energy storing devices, with
characteristics somewhere in between batteries and conventional capacitors.
Batteries can store relatively large amounts of energy, but the charging and
discharging rate is limited. Conventional capacitors on the other hand can
store energy very rapidly, but the amount of energy is limited. The idea of the
supercapacitor is that it can store larger amounts of energy than a
conventional capacitor (i.e. higher energy density) and that the rate of
charging/discharging is faster than that of a battery (i.e. higher power
density).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Other advantages are the long
cycle life (they may be cycled millions of times), the wide operational
temperature range (-40 – 65 °C) and a simple charging procedure, with little
risk of overcharge.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A supercapacitor has a structure similar to batteries. It
consists of two electrodes with an electrolyte in between, as shown in Figure
2. The separator prevents short circuiting. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There are three different types of
supercapacitors dependent on which way they store energy; Electrical
double-layer capacitors (EDLCs), which store charges electrostatically, pseudocapacitors,
which store charges through electrochemical redox reactions, and hybrid
capacitors, which utilize both charge storage mechanisms simultaneously. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The EDLCs stores charges at the electrode/electrolyte
interface. Upon charging of the EDLC, ions in the electrolyte moves towards the
oppositely charged electrode surface to compensate for the electronic charge at
the electrode surface. Because a layer of solvent molecules prevents the
charges from being in direct contact with the electrode surface, the energy is
stored electrostatically in the electric field between the charged electrode
surface and the layer of ions. There is a double-layer capacitance, Cdl, related
to this charge separation. At discharge the ions move in the opposite direction
and the energy is released. The supercapacitor can be charged and discharged
within seconds due to the electrostatic charge storage, since no slow
electrochemical reactions are involved. However, there is a limit to how much
energy that can be stored dependent on the active surface area. The larger the
electrode area, the more energy the supercapacitor is able to store, because
there is space for more ions at the electrode/electrolyte interface. For this
reason, the electrodes are usually made of a porous material with a high
surface area.</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAVSHuEzg1jtcPqPetTrUhm7T_bm8lH3aFDbhpeSlOORpYaG7coquMqo0UUl63yGeuAE86hWC1nXOoLSPwZZRwSwcy2fPi98Dzr_sl4w2gW6qPNIJ5r7L5DiY2GeEC_CFvEs0_OK1RXW8q/s1600/Figur+2.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAVSHuEzg1jtcPqPetTrUhm7T_bm8lH3aFDbhpeSlOORpYaG7coquMqo0UUl63yGeuAE86hWC1nXOoLSPwZZRwSwcy2fPi98Dzr_sl4w2gW6qPNIJ5r7L5DiY2GeEC_CFvEs0_OK1RXW8q/s1600/Figur+2.png" height="222" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 2. Structure of an Electrochemical Double Layer
Capacitor (EDLC).</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The other way of storing energy is through electrochemical redox
reactions (pseudocapacitors). These reactions involve transfer of electrons
between the electrode and the ions in the electrolyte. Transfer of electrons is
often a quite slow process compared to the movement of ions in the electrolyte,
but these materials have a higher capacitance than the EDCL and can therefore
store more energy. A supercapacitor can consist of a combination of materials,
which ensures both electrochemical double layer capacitance and
pseudocapacitance. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<h4 class="MsoNormal">
The combination of solar cells and supercapacitors</h4>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Supercapacitors in combination with a solar cell can even
out rapid variations in power production from the solar cell. It is important to
note that the supercapacitor has high enough energy and power densities to store
the peak power production within the permitted voltage range. At the same time
a low cost is required for commercial applications. Moreover, supercapacitors
have great advantages in terms of robustness and low maintenance cost. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition design features such as how the
supercapacitor is connected to the solar cell needs to be considered. If the
supercapacitor is to be connected directly on the back of a solar panel,
temperature has to be taken into consideration. Temperatures on the module of a
solar panel can easily reach temperatures of 45 °C and above (Markvart et al.,
2003), dependent on the outside temperature. This is important to take into
account especially when considering the electrolyte of the supercapacitor. A
different placement of the supercapacitor (further away from the solar panel as
a separate unit) or the introduction of a cooling system could reduce the
temperature requirement. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The stability
and lifetime of the supercapacitor plays into this as well.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<h4 class="MsoNormal">
Material choices</h4>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Supercapacitors are commercially available; however,
widespread use is restricted by their low energy density and high cost. These
drawbacks can be mitigated by developing a new class of high performance
electrodes which consists of a combination of materials produced from abundant,
cheap and environmentally friendly elements with low processing costs. Here we
introduce a brief selection of materials that might have promising applications
for supercapacitors in the near future.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<h4 class="MsoNormal">
Electrodes</h4>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The electrode material for use in supercapacitors should
have a high active surface area to store as much energy as possible. Graphene
and carbon nanotubes are interesting materials, but unfortunately very
expensive. The most common carbon for commercial EDLCs is activated carbon, due
to its high surface area (typically 700-2200 m2/g, high stability and low cost.
Unfortunately, the amount of energy which can be stored in an EDLC based on
activated carbon is limited. To increase the amount of energy the activated
carbon could be combined with a metal oxide (which displays pseudocapacitance) to
form a hybrid capacitor. The implementation of a metal oxide allows for
electrochemical redox reactions in the supercapacitor, leading to a higher
energy density (Hallam et al.).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Manganese
oxide, iron oxide, cobalt oxide and nickel oxide are potentially promising materials
due to their ability to store larger amounts of energy (as compared to carbon
materials), abundance, low cost and environmentally friendliness (Wang et al.,
2012). Another interesting option could be to use porous, n-type silicon coated
with activated carbon as the electrodes of the supercapacitor, as explored recently
(Oakes et al., 2013). This way it could be possible to make the supercapacitor
as a part of the solar cell module, since the solar cell is also made out of
Si. However possible temperature increase at the back side of the solar cell
can affect the efficiency of the solar cell drastically as well. Therefore, a
separated unit might be necessary or with an insulator layer at the back of the
solar cell.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<h4 class="MsoNormal">
Electrolyte</h4>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Most commercial EDLCs use organic electrolytes, which allows
for higher operating voltages (typically about 2.7 – 2.8 V) than aqueous
electrolytes (< 2 V). However, the production costs of organic electrolytes
are high due to expensive solvents and salts, high energy consumption during
manufacturing and specific manufacturing conditions (any contact with air or
moisture has to be avoided). In addition, organic electrolytes can become
hazardous at high temperatures (above 65 °C), which might be caused by the high
currents required for high power applications or the high temperature on the
back side of a solar cell. The result of high temperatures might be
vaporization of toxic solvents, inflammation (i.e. the device might catch fire)
or explosion of the supercapacitor. For instance, the organic solvent
acetonitrile which is currently in use will decompose at temperatures above 85
°C, but there exists organic solvents that can tolerate much higher temperatures
(Vangari et al., 2013). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Supercapacitors based on aqueous electrolytes have received
increased attention, as aqueous electrolytes are far cheaper, safer and more
environmentally friendly than organic electrolytes. The low price arises from
cheap electrolyte components and an easy assembling process which results in
low fabrication costs. Aqueous-based supercapacitors are inherently safe as no
flammable or toxic liquids are used. This is very important if the
supercapacitor is to be connected directly on the back of a solar panel, where
the temperature becomes very high. The major drawback of aqueous-based
supercapacitors is their low maximum voltage, due to the possibility of gas evolution
(hydrogen and/or oxygen) at higher voltages. This implies a lower energy and
power density for the aqueous electrolytes compared to the organic ones. In
order to achieve the desired voltage, more supercapacitor cells with aqueous
electrolytes would be needed. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<h4 class="MsoNormal">
Conclusion</h4>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Supercapacitors are important for renewable energy storage
systems such as solar cells, as they can be charged and discharged in seconds. They
are one of the best energy storage devices to smooth out the the sudden peaks
in the power output from solar cells, proven by simulations and real-time
experiments.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, widespread use is
restricted due to their high cost and low energy density. Activated carbon
should be the main electrode material due to its high surface area, low cost
and high stability. The activated carbon can be combined with new materials
such as n-doped silicon based materials or cheap, abundant and environmentally
friendly metal oxides. These new materials are promising candidate materials
for the future supercapacitors, providing benign and cheap solutions with
higher energy densities. Aqueous electrolytes are a cheap, safe and
environmentally friendly alternative to the expensive and potentially harmful
organic electrolytes. This is especially important if a supercapacitor is to be
connected directly on the back of a solar cell. Though, the design and
integration of supercapacitors to solar cells still need to be further
investigated in detail.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<h4 class="MsoNormal">
References</h4>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Fahad, Amal; Soyata, Tolga; Wang, Tai; Sharma, Gaurav;
Heinzelman, Wendi; Shen, Kai (2012). “SOLARCAP: Super Capacitor Buffering of
Solar Energy for Self-Sustainable Field Systems,”SOC Conference (SOCC), IEEE
International 236-241.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Glavin, M.; Chan, P.; Armstrong, S. and Hurley, W. (2008) “A
stand-alone photovoltaic supercapacitor battery hybrid energy storage system,”
in Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference,</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2008. EPE-PEMC 2008. 13th, pp. 1688–1695.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Hallam, Philip M.; Gomez-Mongot, Maria; Kampouris, Dimitrios
K.; Bankc, Craig E. (2012). “Facile synthetic fabrication of iron oxide
particles and novel hydrogen superoxide supercapacitors,” RSC Advances
2:6672-6679.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Markvart, Tom; Castaner, Luis (2003). Practical Handbook of
Photovoltaics Fundementals and Applications. New York: Elsevier Advanced
Technology.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Oakes, Landon; Westover, Andrew;
Mares, Jeremy W. ; Chatterjee, Shahana; Erwin, William R.; Bardhan,
Rizia; Reiss, Sharon M.; Pint, Cary L. (2013). “Surface engineered porous
silicon for stable, high performance electrochemical supercapacitors,”
Scientific Reports 3: 3020.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Vangari, Manisha; Pryor, Tonya; Jiang, Li (2013).
“Supercapacitors: Review of Materials and Fabricaiton Methods,” Journal of
Energy Engineering 139:72-79.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Wang, G., Zhang, L. & Zhang, J. (2012). “A review of
electrode materials for electrochemical supercapacitors,” Chem. Soc. Rev. 41:797–828.</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04493280544812589178noreply@blogger.com161tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2069731235112545910.post-86738058060368201122014-10-27T12:00:00.002+01:002014-10-27T12:02:41.382+01:00Hydrogen Cell Cars and Electric Cars<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<![endif]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;">By Hammad Majeed,</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;"> NTNU [writer], Usman (NTNU), Lizhen (NTNU), Shahla Gondal, NTNU, Naveed Asif, NTNU, and Idan Liebes <br />at NorRen summer school 2014</span><br />
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</o:shapelayout></xml><![endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Energy plays
a key role in world economy. International energy agency (IEA, 2010a) believes
that, if the policies and plans by various governments with respect to energy
usage will be implemented than the world primary energy demands will increase
by 36% in between 2010 and 2035.</span><br />
<br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Transportation
plays a vital role in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, as 33 % of the energy
demands come from this sector (Eurostat, 2011). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In order to reduce CO2 emissions and to meet
the challenge a strategy for energy efficiency plus renewable energy along with
CCS should be implemented. Hydrogen and electric vehicles are one of the key
points towards clean environment and to accomplish energy demands.<br /><br /> </span><br />
<h4 class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Social Aspects of Hydrogen Cell vs Electric Cars</span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"></span></h4>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">This blog
doesn’t deals with technical evaluation of these cars instead it depicts people
thinking about these technologies. An online survey with in Norway was done
along with person to person interaction in Asker city center (Norway) in order
to extract information on realistic basis to understand what are the future
potential of these technologies, how people will adopt it in to their daily
lives, how much they want to spend on these types of cars, whether they have
knowhow about these technologies are not.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Total of 86 people were asked about their
opinions in the form of questionnaire. The results are explained in graphical
method as;</span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><br /></span></div>
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<o:Subject>Om innenlands bruk av naturgass mv.</o:Subject>
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gtaKEyAvhnDXWGIshWO0tuCQQtFP9A3S1B6WySyMhyltwWDWSj6gb5Zwl1bCI3U4Ci9rRkU4DqBvpmB0ttqoQZH6W3NoADXCfTNDLbqUZ2vHWLhe2LaL5Qn23iut8aQdT0ovS0bFOB6gL7ZwLb03vDO9KnPDPIo1sRLl8tLQ0xN11hKnwGp2zGTu6SQYEEBrgfomw0GqaewbhrRsXJ72BD6tusS+SjEfXDJk9wNhYQI9K0H6JsBX/1fsxH2If0Tqa+D6btk/8y4Pt3oavsZixJFvzMDxB07Qf8kaqBvBhgxaFmyf+avXk4hXpZuYBJ209f8reN//edUT9dt0uh2KLETiFusoACPGuibAYbKKDHtF9r1XbJ/5sRZA4iv0yf2Wls7jdo8FrL3jae4ywiJNNB31EDfejGic0L35s7fOv6nj/+YdrHD6lvaNiH6lt4vzcbB+KTQ4f0mFhXoWy9GdE7o7eH//ac/krpbtj2sLDJTx0jzBG1uGwTt7+iAvvWC1ToQN6IzV3fX834fCwn0rRfoG+JGdAbt7+iAvvUS9U3RkOiC8Un7BfqODuhbL9x1FjuBuG0c3u9jIYG+9cJdarEQdEtsH97vYyGBvvXCXW32DsQdI+H9PhYS6Fsv3AVn10DcsRP0vqMD+tYLhi4hbkRnoO/ogL71An2zDcYnYzDQd3RA33qBviFuRGeg7+iAvvUCfesPuiUxnv1/+D3v97GQQN96OdX8Nnf9iRuIGzmKRfPRAn3rBfqGuBGdqd+8iff7WEigb720XL/IXYXCBW1uRJqLp07xfh8LCfStl5brF0v3x/pdJSFuq2V5spNsLzyjdy9ypGx0xg++9z2Hw7ElIy3E+aO6/+yDaVPCns8wa0emQN/RAX0z4M3dT3LXovWDbolpeXfShF/170e+ePj739+SkfbupAnjHn/8g2lTDk2Z7PyPx+pzxskesm7USGJt+gyhz2eYtSNTeL+DRQX6ZgD0DXFbKpvSRh2emku+frZ/vy0ZacuTna8mDqNH6Nc0Mn2HPZ9hpsbH8X4Hiwr0zYC6w/non0DcFsyhKZMzft798NRcqYKXJztpR4Xm2f79SPOEnBb2fFZZOzIlf84s3u9gUYG+GVB3OB8FOMRtwUyO+y/S99CoY9oqMU3fSwYNgL6jBvpmwPHzu9fsmIoCnAbjk1ZIevfudNRRqmPyNS23ZWombRPl+UZcYW121tT4OMwajBromwFE3yjAIW7rhLr73UkTlic7pUORpJ2i+ihafWs8X2fWjkyBvvUAfTOg5frFNTumxngBjm6JdZLevbtDAvE4nRqonAhI/+nHP/whnWQS4nxWmRofNzU+DrMGowb6ZgDVd2wW4BA3EkVI6Q196wH6ZgPRd6wV4BA3El2ouzFrUA/QNxuovmOnAIe4kahD3Q196wH6ZkPd4Xxq8E0NT3F3q6HB+CSiJ9LSG7MG9QB9s0Gqbxu3UOp2zOT+5keEDpksCH0zAfpmA5k7aOMWCtrcCJMsGTRAqm/MGtQD9M0Gmb7t1EKBuBFWkbZNoG/9QN9soHMH7WRwiFvoKPeAVe4iKw2ZLS6d5b082clw0rfS3Zg1qBPomw2q+l6zY4q4Bsf4pOgJtgfs0QfX05MQU0vPobvOMomqu6FvnUDfzFDV95rqKSWiDWNC3PZICH0vHjRQtoW3TN9s18rLhisxa5AV0Dczgul7dXVuyf4Z3KWsJeiW2CmyPWCPSponyi2oDk2Z3PcnP6GL5pV+jzoh3A196wT6ZoZs7iA1+Orq3NXVudzVDHHHZqS3yyFSJndBC9HULhudkedMPNp1vzTaOo8usqkmmDXIEOibGaH1XVT/hDVrcIjb9iF7wFIpH31iatnojKf79lE9+dCUyXP69Ca+JtuFSx8YUULX3dC3fqBvZgTX95TV1bmrvLmrvNbqokDcsRBafZeNzhjznz8nXg6xhbe0bUL0Lb1xmvaEdTdmDeoH+maGcuq3Ut+rvLkb907nLm4PxiftHtU9YIPdokH6KKmpo26eaHE39K0f6JsZweYOEn2v7tL3qqrcje/wNDgWviOGJtgcQcwaZA70zQzt+l7JyeDoliBGR7u7oW/9QN8sCTF38H7/pCp3pekGh7gRExKRuzFrUD/QN0si0vfKytzCnU9sfd/YwUyIGzEhtdlZISYIYtqJQUDfLFGbfKLQt/e+vt2Vk93bJ28wrAzH+CRiQiItujFuyQromyXB299q+q7KdVfmurcbYnCIGzEnkRbd0DdDoG+WaNT3Kqm+Kye7t08u8Ewu8Eze8LYL3RJElGicHYhxS+OAvhmjZeq3tP1N9O32TC7wTC6omKTH4BA3Ylqia5hg3JIt0DdjVNvf2vVdUDGpoHzS+j2RSRziRkxLFKOUGLc0COibMWr9E/Wp3w/oe/sD+l5RPmn9Hk23W4O4EdPCRNxofDME+mYMK32vKJ+4onxiaIljfBIxLfq7JeicMAf6Zo+ifxJq6vcD+vbI9b1i28Tl2yau88klDnEjpkXnECVKb+OAvtmjKMD16nv5tgnLt00gEke3BDEtDLsl0mDOCSugb0NQFuChV+48oO8KdX0v3zZhe17u3ok53N/ViO1jkLjROWEL9G0IygI87MqdAsnkk/v6Ln9A3+teyvJkZuydmAOJIwbFUHGjc8IW6NsoNM4dDKvvFRJ9r1mZ48nMqBh7L5A4wjBGixulN3Ogb6N4sACPeOp3CH17uvRdPjajfEzGOxMgcURXzBE3Sm/mQN8GIumAR6HvSRr1vW1MxjZIHIk8tdlZbKcDwt0mA30biKQAj37qt1Tfy8smyPUtMXjZmIy3J+S8PT6buxcQi8e0clsaTDhhDvRtLMfO1z8wd9BgfZeNySgdnV46On0PJI4oQspt88WN0tsgoG/DqTucr3vq9319b5k5Rou+S0anl4xO3zM+Gx5HjnIqt6Xh/S60J9C34dxrobBYuROpvreOTt86Om1LRppvfPb+3EncJYKYHO7WRultKNC3GRw7Xx/Zyp1g+t42YcvMMXTuoHZ9F2ekFWekbc5I2z0+e//kidy1ghgaYm0riBvuNhTo2yTqDucF13eu9oWXUn1XqOs7Q6nvLV363pyRtjlj1Kb0UfXjs+vRV7FXLGVtuNsEoG/zqDuUF93KHeXCS1V9b1PXd7qqvkk2wuPixyIdEtXwfs/ZHOjbPFquXww99TuKhZf69b0xfdTGtFEb0lI9Y0fX54zjLiNES2qzs6xsbRLMFDQa6NtUWq5fDDV3UPPCyxD6Lguu7+KQ+iZZn5a6flTqrpxxu6Byi4Uq2+LWJkHbxASgb7M59ukugxZeatf35tD6TktdP2rkulEj140a+VbqiJ3ZWTuzs7jLKzYjlrLhbpOBvjlwz+BRrdxhq+9NXfre2KXvDQp9v5U64s3UEW+mphSNTKkbl1k3LvO9SRO4e83GEVTZcLf5QN98OPbpLqMXXgbXd1rU+i4amVI4IqVwxPDCEcNLMtJqx2XWwua6U5edVZed9aKwvoa7eQF9c+PYuV3RLby0iL7Xjhi+dsTwN1KS30hJXpOSvCUjrWZc5o5xmX+BzTX4uih1xG8HD3xp8MAne/Z4omePJ+LjpsXHTeMtX7hbLKBvnjQSgxu88HLL6HD6To9A30VB9E2yOiV5dUryquHOVcOdxemjdmSN3ZE1NpaFTkYOdmZnvZU64ndDBj3VK/6pnj2m9+wxvWcPV88erp49bKNvuNt8oG/ONJ7bFdnKnbKIF17q0veo6PW9arhz5XDnyuFO93BnwXBnQXLSprTUjWmp3qyxVVljq7LGvjtxPHe9MgyZrrNu1MhXhg15ZdiQl4cOntW758zePWf2ip/RK35Gr/hf9oq3q77hbi5A3/xp+fpimJU7+tbNM9b3yOj1XZCctCI5aXly0vLkpNeTk5YlJy1zJi5zJpLXqswcsz1zzPbMMQ0Tx++dOH6vxeS+Oyd7d8643Tnj6nPGkXbTnxKHvpo49NXEoU/37f10395z+/ae26fXnD695vTpNbtPz1m9e8aIvjG/mxfQtyVo+epi6JU7Ghdeatn2JGp9v2mYvvOdifnOxDxn4mvOxNeShv25K39KHEryauKQopEphSNTCkemVIwdXTEmo2JMRvmYez/4OxNy3pmQ83aQ7KEZn0O2YKTxdaW46/dTnJ5WnJ62OT0tz5mU50x6LSlpQf9+8/v3m9+/37P9+z3bv++v+t3LvH59SJ7p20evvuNF1Xfe7FlwN0egbwvReG6XW8PCSw36Vtn2JEJ9p1pN368OG/LHYUP+OGzI0qGDSV4ZOviVoYNfHjLo5SGD/jBk0O+78rshg347eCAZGHxp8MAXBw98cfDAJYMHLhk0cPGgAYsHDfjNwAGLuvLCgAHPD0h4fkDCcwMSnktIWJiQsDAh4dcJCb9O6L+gP4kJ+o4TUd9omHAH+rYWjWd36V94GX7dfIT6vmdwdX0Pj1rfr/PW9wvQN9wtMtC35Wj56oKWlTustz3Rpe83Yk7ffWJW32iYWAfo26J8dGanEQsvQ+9aZY6+V4TRd6Kd9d1TXd/TBNF33uxZvN8Z4D7Qt3X56MxOrSt3DNi1ap1y6rcOfbuhb/H1jYaJ1YC+Lc3Vr/7n6Jk6LQsvmetbZeWOIfpOkuo7L8b0/aQg+kbDxJpA3wJw9EydbOWO7nXz4TYd1KnvFDP1PZijvp9hqm/umlYNxG1ZoG9hONpUF8W6+Sg2HdSg7xSq77UG6Ps1wfTd+56++2jS93Rx9I1uicWBvkWCGlz7wsutGhdeatm1yu76XqhD36T0to2+0S0RAuhbPI421bFfN2+CvofHir5n9+k1u3eXvnuF0bcFV8yj6BYF6FtUzu7wal83z3bTQSb6Xq5B33++r++hIuqblN4zu9xtfX1D3GIBfYvNmR1ew7c90a3vldC35fWNCd0iAn3bgTM7vAZsexLxHRuovldD3+H0bZ3tBtHmFhfo2z40VXuDr5tnuWcs9G0PfUPcogN92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<o:Subject>Om innenlands bruk av naturgass mv.</o:Subject>
<o:Author>Hammad Majeed</o:Author>
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terms of kilometers</span></div>
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" 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<o:Subject>Om innenlands bruk av naturgass mv.</o:Subject>
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6: Market projection about vehicles</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-themecolor: text1;"></span></div>
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<br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Conclusions</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The main
theme of this work was to extract statistics whether people have information
about these technologies and if governmental incentives are provided to
manufactures and to end users whether they will invest a huge amount of money
for their new cars as these technologies are expensive, to help in building
green environment.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><br />It is
evident form these graphical explanations that that public perspective about
these clean environment technologies are very constructive. About 58 % of the
people have daily mileage of around 20-50 Km, so there is a huge potential for
these clean cars. People are very much aware about both technologies and market
projection depicts that around 50 % of people can invest in 100,000-250,000 Kr
for their new car. This will provide the road to fulfill energy loads of
current era with transition to a cleaner, domestic and more secure energy
future. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><br />IEA,
International Energy Agency, 2010a. “World energy outlook”, Executive summary</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">http://www.
</span><a href="http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu</span></a><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> <span lang="EN-US">, stats from “May 2011”</span></span></div>
<br />
<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04493280544812589178noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2069731235112545910.post-65638680113947732632014-10-21T13:55:00.001+02:002014-10-21T14:28:36.750+02:00Li-ion Batteries: On the verge of electrification of the car traffic<!--[if !mso]>
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</o:shapelayout></xml><![endif]--><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;"><span lang="EN-US">Group work at NorRen Summer School 2014</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;"><span lang="EN-US">By </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="color: #003300;">Ahmet Oguz Tezel </span>et al.</span></span></span> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJTo9cJGCXVJKrFpDI6WkW5cKZQs_-1n_NI9r16BYV-RRT67zDxzV0v6gt2QtDTbkQRKjGOPVMaJ01dfpDJrYIPyjcL8ORn1kGfttedscXys4_FcspAx5cOokwxi0MOvfoT8ssnR4qO7_M/s1600/elektriskbilparkering.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJTo9cJGCXVJKrFpDI6WkW5cKZQs_-1n_NI9r16BYV-RRT67zDxzV0v6gt2QtDTbkQRKjGOPVMaJ01dfpDJrYIPyjcL8ORn1kGfttedscXys4_FcspAx5cOokwxi0MOvfoT8ssnR4qO7_M/s1600/elektriskbilparkering.jpg" height="208" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Given the rising
concerns about the green-house-gas evolution and global warming, the shift from
coal power to renewable energy production systems, such as wind and solar, and
the shift from internal combustion engines (ICE) to electric vehicles (EV)
should be considered necessity (Figure 1). Realization of these transitions,
perhaps not widely known by public, relies on the development of advance energy
storage systems. Li-ion batteries, which store the energy by mean of
electrochemical activity, represent the forefront technology that responds to
the demand on energy storage systems. Although receives competition from fuel
cells, particularly in relation to EV applications, Li-ion batteries are
predicted to dominate the market in the near future since fuel cells are not
mature enough a technology and subject to further improvements to go with.</span><br />
<br />
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiyjB_o6ZREh43LMcSO0b8Wi9oBwxs4K_VEK7XvedR8pNyZ-5vdMuomGUtT-RqRtUCH2wY-Xyllv3Ufw11sS9G4UK-xkZWirWcE6N1qtKAJKkSIzy3jESkw10U7BHQ2MC87a0kjrx-ciEZT/s1600/kakediagram.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiyjB_o6ZREh43LMcSO0b8Wi9oBwxs4K_VEK7XvedR8pNyZ-5vdMuomGUtT-RqRtUCH2wY-Xyllv3Ufw11sS9G4UK-xkZWirWcE6N1qtKAJKkSIzy3jESkw10U7BHQ2MC87a0kjrx-ciEZT/s1600/kakediagram.jpg" height="320" width="304" /></a></div>
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span lang="DE-CH">The battery technology has been
continuously developed over the last decades, nearing to meeting the technological
and practical requirements, although many challenges are yet to be overcome. In
this project, we aim at evaluating the feasibility of the application of state
of the art Li-ion batteries to EVs, exclusively to cars as the principle mode
of passenger transport, by their practical performances in meeting the public
needs. We prefer to avoid evaluating the car use as a whole and instead choose
to speak in terms of its divisions ( i.e. CO2</span><span lang="DE-CH" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: DE-CH; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-text-raise: -4.5pt; position: relative; top: 4.5pt;"></span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">/km, driving range/day and average speed ). This
approach enables us to identify the prevailing mode of car use and suggest a
battery solution to the point. </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"></span></span></div>
<a name='more'></a><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The
assessment of EVs involves first the concerns as to the source of electricity
that will be used to charge the battery followed by considerations of the
battery performance in a specific application. For the latter, we find out how
much CO2</span><span lang="DE-CH" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: DE-CH; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-text-raise: -4.5pt; position: relative; top: 4.5pt;"></span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>is
generated to produce per kWh of electricity from various power plants (Table 1).
Then we propose two scenarios; first we assume that the batteries are charged
solely with the energy provided by coal plants (the worst case scenario), second
scenario is one in which the energy to charge the batteries is extracted from
natural gas. Thereafter, we estimate the amount of electricity it will take to
drive an average EV and ICE a kilometer (Table 2) and finally calculate the </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">CO2</span><span lang="DE-CH" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">production/km from these different
scenarios (Table 3). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="DE-CH">Table 1. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">CO2</span><span lang="DE-CH"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>emission (2011) per kWh of energy [2,3].</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<table align="left" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableLightShading" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; margin-left: 5.25pt; margin-right: 5.25pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-table-anchor-horizontal: margin; mso-table-anchor-vertical: page; mso-table-left: center; mso-table-lspace: 7.05pt; mso-table-rspace: 7.05pt; mso-table-top: 181.45pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 20.4pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: -1;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; height: 20.4pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: margin; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: center; mso-element-top: 181.45pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5;">
<b><span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Power
source</span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; height: 20.4pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: margin; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: center; mso-element-top: 181.45pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1;">
<b><span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">gCO2/kWh</span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: margin; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: center; mso-element-top: 181.45pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;">
<b><span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Coal</span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: margin; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: center; mso-element-top: 181.45pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">880</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: margin; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: center; mso-element-top: 181.45pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;">
<b><span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Petroleum
Diesel</span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: margin; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: center; mso-element-top: 181.45pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">266</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="background: silver; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: margin; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: center; mso-element-top: 181.45pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;">
<b><span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Natural
gas</span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: margin; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: center; mso-element-top: 181.45pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">390</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Table 2. Energy
consumption (a) and efficiency (b) of commercially available cars run on
different engines [4, 5].</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<table align="left" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableLightShading" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; margin-left: 5.25pt; margin-right: 5.25pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-table-anchor-horizontal: page; mso-table-anchor-vertical: page; mso-table-left: 139.5pt; mso-table-lspace: 7.05pt; mso-table-rspace: 7.05pt; mso-table-top: 363.8pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: -1;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: page; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: 139.55pt; mso-element-top: 363.8pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5;">
<b><span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Model</span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: page; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: 139.55pt; mso-element-top: 363.8pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1;">
<b><span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">kWh/km</span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: page; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: 139.55pt; mso-element-top: 363.8pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;">
<b><span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Nissan
Leaf</span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: page; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: 139.55pt; mso-element-top: 363.8pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">0.21</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: page; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: 139.55pt; mso-element-top: 363.8pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;">
<b><span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Chevy
Volt</span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: page; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: 139.55pt; mso-element-top: 363.8pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">0.17</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="background: silver; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: page; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: 139.55pt; mso-element-top: 363.8pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;">
<b><span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Average
Diesel</span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: page; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: 139.55pt; mso-element-top: 363.8pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">0.6</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<table align="left" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableLightShading" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; margin-left: 5.25pt; margin-right: 5.25pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-table-anchor-horizontal: page; mso-table-anchor-vertical: page; mso-table-left: 306.95pt; mso-table-lspace: 7.05pt; mso-table-rspace: 7.05pt; mso-table-top: 362.9pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: -1;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: page; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: 307.0pt; mso-element-top: 362.9pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5;">
<b><span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Engine</span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: page; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: 307.0pt; mso-element-top: 362.9pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1;">
<b><span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">%
energy efficiency</span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 20.35pt; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="background: silver; border: none; height: 20.35pt; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: page; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: 307.0pt; mso-element-top: 362.9pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;">
<b><span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Gasoline</span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; height: 20.35pt; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: page; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: 307.0pt; mso-element-top: 362.9pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">20</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: page; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: 307.0pt; mso-element-top: 362.9pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;">
<b><span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Diesel</span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: page; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: 307.0pt; mso-element-top: 362.9pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">30</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="background: silver; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: page; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: 307.0pt; mso-element-top: 362.9pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;">
<b><span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">EV</span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: page; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: 307.0pt; mso-element-top: 362.9pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">70</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">An
intriguing and encouraging finding is that the lower </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">CO2</span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>production/km with EVs is noticeable even if all
the electricity used to charge the batteries was produced by natural gas plants
(Table 3). It can be predicted that this will, possibly, be further improved
with the renewables increasing their share in power grids.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="DE-CH">Table 3. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">CO2</span><span lang="DE-CH"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>emission per km</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<table align="left" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableLightShading" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; margin-left: 5.25pt; margin-right: 5.25pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-table-anchor-horizontal: margin; mso-table-anchor-vertical: page; mso-table-left: center; mso-table-lspace: 7.05pt; mso-table-rspace: 7.05pt; mso-table-top: 590.1pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: -1;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: margin; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: center; mso-element-top: 590.1pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5;">
<b><span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Model</span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: margin; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: center; mso-element-top: 590.1pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1;">
<b><span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">gCO2/km</span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: margin; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: center; mso-element-top: 590.1pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Average EV (coal plant sourced)</span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: margin; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: center; mso-element-top: 590.1pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">238</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: margin; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: center; mso-element-top: 590.1pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Average EV
(Natural gas sourced)</span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: margin; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: center; mso-element-top: 590.1pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">105</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="background: silver; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: margin; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: center; mso-element-top: 590.1pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;">
<b><span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Average
Diesel</span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: margin; mso-element-anchor-vertical: page; mso-element-frame-hspace: 7.05pt; mso-element-left: center; mso-element-top: 590.1pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">133</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">A second
source of concern relates to the performance of EVs. This describes the most
crucial problem when it comes to the ability of EVs to stand out in the market.
In order to convince the consumer in favor of EVs, it should provide as long a driving
range as well as high speed as the ICEs do today. These functionalities are defined
by energy and power densities respectively. There is unfortunately a tradeoff
between these quantities that leads us to narrow down our attention to most
practiced driving mode. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">80% of the
car traffic in EU is composed of cars carrying one passenger with driving ranges
of less than 60 km/day, mainly at slow traffic [6]. We, thereby, collected the
relevant data from the EV manufacturers and built a performance chart that
demonstrates driving range, maximum speed and the cost of the state of art EVs
available in the market (Table 4). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Table 4. Performance
chart of commercially available EVs (Li-ion)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableLightShading" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-alt: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1056;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 30.0pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: -1;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; height: 30.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 90.15pt;" valign="top" width="150"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1;">
<b><span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Model</span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; height: 30.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">100 km/h<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>acceleration<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>time (s)</span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; height: 30.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1;">
<b><span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Max speed (km/h)</span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; height: 30.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1;">
<b><span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Range / charge (km)</span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: none; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; height: 30.0pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; mso-border-top-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1;">
<b><span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Price<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>($)</span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 27.85pt; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="background: silver; border: none; height: 27.85pt; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 90.15pt;" valign="top" width="150"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">BMW-i3</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; height: 27.85pt; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">7.2</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; height: 27.85pt; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">150</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; height: 27.85pt; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">160</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; height: 27.85pt; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">41350</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 25.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border: none; height: 25.4pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 90.15pt;" valign="top" width="150"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Nissan Leaf</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; height: 25.4pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">11.5</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; height: 25.4pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">140</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; height: 25.4pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">160</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; height: 25.4pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">28800</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 2.55pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="background: silver; border: none; height: 2.55pt; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 90.15pt;" valign="top" width="150"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">BYD e6</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; height: 2.55pt; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">10</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; height: 2.55pt; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">140</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; height: 2.55pt; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">316</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; height: 2.55pt; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">52000</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 14.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border: none; height: 14.45pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 90.15pt;" valign="top" width="150"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Chevy spark EV</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; height: 14.45pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">8</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; height: 14.45pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">151</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; height: 14.45pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">132</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border: none; height: 14.45pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">27495</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 6.45pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="background: silver; border: none; height: 6.45pt; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 90.15pt;" valign="top" width="150"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Mitsubishi i</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; height: 6.45pt; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">15</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; height: 6.45pt; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">130</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; height: 6.45pt; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">160</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: silver; border: none; height: 6.45pt; mso-background-themecolor: text1; mso-background-themetint: 63; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">22995</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 1.1pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 1.1pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 90.15pt;" valign="top" width="150"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">Tesla Model S</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 1.1pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">5.6</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 1.1pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">200</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 1.1pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">502</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: none; height: 1.1pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: text1; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="DE-CH" style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; mso-themeshade: 191;">71070</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Being aware
that there is no definite rule about the selection of one type of vehicle, our
work is an attempt to illustrate to what extent the EVs are ready to meet the
market demand for specific applications. We show that, with respect to major
concerns such as </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">CO2</span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>generation and performance, the Li-ion battery
technology is beyond where the public thinks it is. However, it should be noted
that our study omits more advanced estimations including cost of installation
of charge stations, cycle life of batteries and the impact of the elimination
of tax revenues from gas on the national economies, which are very central to
our topic. With these components included, the values tabulated in Table 3 may
change to favor ICEs. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Moreover,
one should note that the performances given in Table 4 is subject to changes
due to variations in the mode of driving. For instance, one should expect a
decrease in the maximum range a car can run as the driving speed increases. The
values in the table are provided by the supplier after prolonged tests
conducted within standardized parameters.</span></div>
<h4 class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">References</span></h4>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">IEA CO2
Emissions from Fuel Combustion Statistics, 2012.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="DE-CH">IEA CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion
Statistics, ISSN :1683-4291 (online), 2011.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Well-to-Wheels
analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context,
European Commission Joint research Centre, Report, Version 2c, March 2007.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Newbery,
D., `Green Emotion- The economics of electric vehicles`, E&E seminar,
Cambridge, January, 2013.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">U.K.
Department of Transport, Statistics, Table ENV0103, December 2013.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Selliers,
J.D., ‘European strategy on clean and energy-efficient vehicles’, European Association
for Battery Electric Vehicles, European Commission public hearing, 2010.</span></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04493280544812589178noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2069731235112545910.post-27985154147392056032014-10-08T12:59:00.001+02:002014-10-08T13:00:05.949+02:00Supercapacitors for peak shifting over short durations in PV-systems<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;">By<br />Xuemei Cheng, Wesley Dose, Thomas Hempel, Øyvind Storesund Hetland, Kine Solbakken and Björn Veit at NorRen Summer School 2014</span><br />
<br />
<h4>
Introduction</h4>
In recent years there has been a growing emphasis on harnessing energy from renewable sources. Photovoltaic (PV) cells have demonstrated great potential as a cheap and reliable source of clean, renewable energy, and PV production facilities are now being deployed at a high pace globally. The output from a PV production system naturally varies with the cycles of the sun (e.g., day and night), requiring other sources of energy to be available when sunlight is scarce or absent. There is another, less well known, issue in PV systems however: the variability of PV output even while the sun shining, due to second- and minute- resolution disturbances in the light absorbed by the solar panel. These fluctuations are usually due to clouds, but any moving object that occludes the path of sunlight will contribute. As more and more small scale PV systems are connected to the local grid, these fluctuations may prove a problem through grid voltage instabilities and temporary grid overproduction due to sharp local peaks in production. A possible remedy to these issues could be to somehow store energy when the system experiences a short spike in production, and then release this energy again when a drop in production occurs. This process would result in a smoother output from the PV system, with no, or minimal, loss in overall production.<br />
<br />
How could we implement such an ‘energy buffer’ in a real-life application? The most common alternatives are batteries and capacitors. A battery can offer a high energy capacity (Wh) but low power (acceptance/delivery time, W), while the capacitor offers very high power, but can only store a small amount of energy. Another device has recently joined the market however: the electrochemical capacitor (also known as supercapacitors or ultracapacitors). The supercapacitor fills the intermediate region between batteries and capacitors. It could be considered as a high-capacity capacitor, and it shows considerable promise in storing seconds worth of energy from PV output, even from larger PV systems, while also providing the high rate energy storage/release required.<br />
<a name='more'></a><br />
<br />
<h4>
The problem – Strong fluctuations in the solar radiation</h4>
Figure 1 shows the real measured solar radiation in Chemnitz, Germany in the year 2001. The time increment between the measured values is 1 second. Over this time period a total of 28,947,592 data pairs were collected. The odd area at the baseline between day 50 and day 110 is the result of lighting from a construction site overnight.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img height="280" src="https://lh6.googleusercontent.com/oUS_EF4J6zfy1XIF7idIlYaMnyAPuwK7fZG-hT_KqJwKnCUZ-PvgPF-QferwcfMlIARqrMCqnrJ2TFuh7omlKCKwFTaxANJhPSRyNItianvTNQ6UyzHdDO_xYp_6Kl1-eg" style="border: medium none; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; transform: rotate(0rad);" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 1: Measured solar radiation</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Figure 2 shows the typical waveform of the solar radiation of a (summer-) day.<br />
<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img height="280" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/sYxkBn5Ly6rTZzj5J7PZjjnZEJIoU0q5b3sQaTn8py5YC7Md8jA1iGk_5rcGPIUZhSCYEwavyquqON2OVprtkkRQ3J4UWjbKyrpuKmhN9EBu9qPGNVmimoR2kI90UiGXnA" style="border: medium none; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; transform: rotate(0rad);" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Measured solar radiation of one day</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
In addition to the expected daily variation in PV output, it can also be seen in Figures 1 and 2 that changes in weather conditions, especially clouds, leads to large fluctuations in the output on very short timescales.<br />
<br />
<h4>
Supercapacitors</h4>
A supercapacitor stores energy electrostatically on the surface of two conducting plates. Figure 3 shows a schematic construction of a cylindrical capacitor.<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img height="342" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/aV1b64MUsspwnynnI9_rRVLbf6ZDHpAOGhVUKBeSAF0W68EzW8stKZEpas7RG5wrNjQ_AX0zmnLufOWR7Ke24Yp4heqOJDxVCuqASVuEbVF72XJVIQ5KBH8NnQwGaDZkwA" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br />
Figure 3: Schematic construction of a cylindrical capacitor</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
One of the characteristics of supercapacitors is the very large surface area of the conducting plates and the very thin separation layers between them. The result is a very high power density, which means that the storage device is able to absorb and release energy very quickly, within seconds. This feature will likely make the supercapacitor very suitable for solving the problem of fluctuating output from PV, compared to a battery which needs between 1-10 hours to charge. A limitation of the supercapacitor is the energy density. Compared to a battery, a supercapacitor can store only 10% of the energy a battery can store per unit volume.<br />
<br />
Another issue related to supercapacitors is that the cost is currently very high. Actual prices on a cell level are in the range of 0.12 NOK/F to 0.16 NOK/F (0.015 €/F to 0.02 €/F). The price largely depends on the manufacturer and on the quantity of ordered cells. However, over the last few years the price has decreased quickly as production volumes for commercialized variants of the supercapacitor has increased.<br />
<br />
<h4>
Simulation results of PV-only and a PV- supercapacitor system</h4>
In order to better assess the usability of supercapacitors for PV output stabilization, some circuit simulations were conducted based on the measured PV output shown above.<br />
<br />
In the simulation schematics (Figure 4 and 5) the PV-system was modelled with a self-developed power source as a 1 kWPeak solar system with a rated voltage of 100 V and a rated current of 10 A. For a better understanding of the "real problem" the load was simulated as an ohmic resistance. In real applications there is in most cases a DC to AC converter that is coupled to the public grid.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img height="238" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/hhBx1xtARD5nQVLEE5nuh7llNPmrchvTBg36nDyklttOw3uzm0KRA8Ks7ZXs5omb7MgSO0ZecZvNzLdYqqVA2KqagMeq2FYZQ8ey1bh7AutklNDnbhSx9-_YiOD3qnx-_w" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 4: Circuit without supercapacitors, used for simulation. </td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<br />
The supercapacitor module in Figure 5 was modelled with the usual equivalent circuit diagram that consists of a capacitance C, a serial resistance RESR and a parallel resistance RP. The module was designed to include a series connection of 40 cells (Maxwell BCAP1200 [1]) with the features listed in Table 1.<br />
<br />
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="margin-left: 0pt;">
<table style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none;"><colgroup><col width="312"></col><col width="187"></col></colgroup><tbody>
<tr style="height: 0px;"><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Parameter</span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Value</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 0px;"><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Capacitance, C</span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">1,200 F</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 0px;"><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Serial resistance, R</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 9px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: sub;">ESR</span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">0.58 mΩ</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 0px;"><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Rated voltage</span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">2.7 V</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 0px;"><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Maximum voltage</span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">2.85 V</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 0px;"><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Maximum operating current</span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">930 A</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 0px;"><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Short circuit current</span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">4,700 A</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 0px;"><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Weight:</span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">260 g</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 0px;"><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Operating temperature</span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">-40°C .. +65°C</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 0px;"><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Usable specific power</span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">5,800 W/kg</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 0px;"><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Specific energy</span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">4.7 Wh/kg</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 0px;"><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Stored energy</span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">1.22 Wh</span></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">Table 1: Cell parameters of a Maxwell BCAP1200</span></div>
<br />
Based on the physical fundamentals of capacitors the string/module parameters can be calculated to the values shown in Table 2.<br />
<br id="docs-internal-guid-52e91573-ef38-6e90-3109-dda040d03f29" />
<div dir="ltr" style="margin-left: 0pt;">
<table style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none;"><colgroup><col width="312"></col><col width="187"></col></colgroup><tbody>
<tr style="height: 0px;"><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Parameter</span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Value</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 0px;"><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Capacitance, C</span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">30 F</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 0px;"><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Serial resistance, R</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 9px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: sub;">ESR</span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">23.2 mΩ</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 0px;"><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Rated voltage</span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">108 V</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 0px;"><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Maximum voltage</span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">114 V</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 0px;"><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Maximum operating current</span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">930 A</span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 0px;"><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Stored energy</span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: solid #000000 1px; border-left: solid #000000 1px; border-right: solid #000000 1px; border-top: solid #000000 1px; padding: 7px 7px 7px 7px; vertical-align: top;"><div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">48.8 Wh</span></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">Table 2: Module parameters of a string of 40 Maxwell BCAP1200 in series connection</span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img height="198" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/dK052gMnkAcQs4884-KVUPOx3u3nVe54FKE1RLbHYHuJ6m4fN-BEwOm334MW63fHzadGIqHaTYtVdcGDP9kiwmhoVRbZt1UVH5fTVKUSkKX7H84hdxXSVs4DtzZpC1NmoA" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 5: Circuit with supercapacitors, used for simulation. The
simulation was based on 40 supercapacitors connected in series, each
with a capacitance of 1,200F.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img height="256" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/vh0OPrymC19ieBppVVkeztCSu6XPbqL42a8Z44WoVlO9VPDmnwXprRrmSDaPAQTXYiCt-oVjZmqBKwIKUyS3bXIxJk10WmikGe7pAVl2THYzAxWuBaYjYY6d9QeD5PU0FA" style="border: medium none; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; transform: rotate(0rad);" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 6a: Simulation results. Red line shows a smoother VM2-voltage
than the gray-blue line, as a result of the added supercapacitors.<br />
<br />
<br /></td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"></td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"></td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"></td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"></td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"></td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"></td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"></td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"></td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img height="258" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/Ai8-vg5z2mQloxo-wnVicYi1vosEjES0RtDC7JUZpZzthpSFF9Qbt2XE501ipc9kKI-g-K0N57hhYnWfpxJCm8vDXfV5P_UQ-XKdE0HJOmilybjjt29bQQiNVrgvh4qLLA" style="border: medium none; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; transform: rotate(0rad);" width="400" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 6b: Zoom of the simulation results shown in Figure 6. Red line
shows a smoother VM2-voltage than the blue line, as a result of the
added supercapacitor</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<span id="docs-internal-guid-52e91573-ef39-ee80-6a46-80008ef9e142" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"></span><span id="docs-internal-guid-52e91573-ef3a-b3df-ca34-c1702117766e" style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"></span>Figures 6a and 6b shows the comparison between a supercapacitor coupled system and a PV-system without supercapacitors. In this case, the supercapacitor is shown to reduce the problematic voltage peaks from ~123 V to ~98 V (reduction of approx. -20%).<br />
<br />
Generally, it can be said that the higher the fluctuations, the higher the benefit gained by using supercapacitors.<br />
<br />
<br />
<h4>
Conclusion</h4>
Through the simulations we have seen that supercapacitors are well suited for smoothing the highly fluctuating output from PV systems, both by smoothing the output and removing sharp voltage peaks. From the results presented above it is reasonable to believe that adding a larger number of supercapacitors will result in an even smoother power output. In situations where short bursts of overproduction leads to disconnection from the local grid, adding supercapacitors will likely increase the energy efficiency of the PV. Instead of disconnection, the peaks will be removed and delivered to the grid at a time when the production is lower. Also, in the case of systems in which PVs are connected directly to a battery, the battery is expected to benefit from a smoother PV output by way of more constant charging rates, which should increase the lifetime of the storage device. However, adding supercapacitors to the PV system adds a significant cost due to the current price for supercapacitors. At the moment, it is less likely that there will be any economic benefits from adding the supercapacitors to the system unless the cost is significantly reduced.<br />
<h4>
References</h4>
[1] Maxwell Technologies, Datasheet K2 Ultracapacitors - 2.7V Series, BCAP1200,<br />
<br />
http://www.maxwell.com/products/ultracapacitors/docs/k2series_ds_10153704.pdf<br />
<br />
[2] http://www.adapted-solutions.com/web/AdaptedSolutionsEnglish/<br />
<br />
ASProductPortunus.htmlAnonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04493280544812589178noreply@blogger.com19tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2069731235112545910.post-12863195399482538232014-09-30T14:22:00.002+02:002014-09-30T14:24:28.311+02:00Decentralised mini-grids based on renewable energy - Case Study: Svalbard<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;"><span lang="EN-US">Group work, NorRen Summer School, by</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;"><span lang="EN-US">Sara Ghaem Sigarchian, PhD candidate at KTH
Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;"><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: DE;">Chiara Bordin, PhD candidate University of
Bologna, Italy</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;"><span lang="EN-US">Dr. Gideon
Goldwine, Ben-Gurion University, Israel</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;"><span lang="EN-US">Fabio Buonsanti, Head of Operations Norway
at Aega AS, Norway</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;"><span lang="EN-US">Georgios Fytianos, PhD candidate at NTNU,
Norway</span></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"></span>What we would like to focus on is something that could be considered a bridge
between policy and science section, and something that lies on the edge of this
summer school and that reflects both our interdisciplinary backgrounds and the
interdisciplinary nature of the research institutes to which we belong to.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Svalbard is the vastest and northernmost
wild area in Western Europe, that sixty percent of the archipelago is glacier
and it is a paradise for rare species of seabirds.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFdMcaJDBvXWsH7SbzJdCctZwGn0aywf0PaGGlatgQWGEFAU6d_zlTlYOefqaiybjav1t7FaVUV9GV89dF20vScYuA3wb4-wKZNawaCZF9ZH51XF7oe4ZAjVzrBJ7KO2ye2rvbWLE7e_HE/s1600/Svalbard.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFdMcaJDBvXWsH7SbzJdCctZwGn0aywf0PaGGlatgQWGEFAU6d_zlTlYOefqaiybjav1t7FaVUV9GV89dF20vScYuA3wb4-wKZNawaCZF9ZH51XF7oe4ZAjVzrBJ7KO2ye2rvbWLE7e_HE/s1600/Svalbard.jpg" height="400" width="375" /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">As a country with well-established
traditions in environmental and climate research, it was highly surprising to
learn about the controversial choice of Norway to encourage a coal enterprise
on Svalbard.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"></span></div>
<a name='more'></a><span lang="EN-US">This circumstance seems clearly related to
the interpretation of the Spitsbergen Treaty, which allows citizens from
signatory countries to benefit from the same rights as Norwegians when it comes
to engage in industrial activities as mining, fishing or hunting, and to
conduct scientific research. That explains the presence of a small Polish
scientific base in Hornsund and the Russian mine in Barentsburg. </span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> </span>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Such clauses though can also be considered
as “open doors” for countries like Russia, ready to claim the whole archipelago
in case of Norwegian abandonment.</span><span lang="EN-US"> From a Norwegian political perspective,
building a strong community, Longyearbyen, with its campus and a raising
business around tourism make a lot of sense. What is less clear, though, is the
push for a systematic and extensive exploitation of mineral resources in such a
fragile environment.</span>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">On one hand, despite an extremely low
production and productivity, Russia unexplainably keeps on running its mine in
Barentsburg, on the other hand Norway is afraid to slow down its production of
coal because uncertain are the reactions of the community settled in
Longyearbyen, which is believed to directly or indirectly make a living out of
the coal enterprise. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Norway’s official position was once made no
secret by Robert Hermansen, former managing director of SNSK, a partially
State-ownded Norwegian mining company: “To keep control of Svalbard we have to
have a community here. If we left, the Russians would immediately claim it”.
With these words Hermansen implicitly stated what’s politically needed is only
a stable settlement, not a polluting mine! </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">In these terms it becomes quite complicated
for Norway, an oil producer, to justify the subsidies given to the only coal
industry of the country and the embarrassment of the Storting (the Norwegian
Parliament) grows even more with the boosted production after the new mine that
was opened in 2013, a decision that explicitly admits the failure of the much
advertised goal to make Svalbard “one of the best-managed wilderness areas in
the world”.</span><span lang="EN-US"> Norway is today the world’s sixth largest
exporter of oil, and the second largest supplier of natural gas to the EU.
These data do not necessarily collide with taking an international leadership
in environmental politics, especially if we consider the possibility for
industrialized countries to achieve the targets ratified in Kyoto by action
abroad, rather than at home.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> </span>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Internationally, Norway chose to justify
its oil and gas as products by arguing that they pollute less than coal. In
such perspective oil and gas become "green" options as opposed to
coal. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">The emission of CO2 within the archipelago
in 2007 surprisingly account for only 1% of the carbon dioxide emitted from the
mainland in the same year (KLIF 2009). This is a very small number, as seen in
these terms. If, instead, we espouse the more sustainable sharing theory of per-capita
emissions and consider Svalbard as something apart as they say, then we realise
how intolerable is the current situation, where the per-capita emission of CO2
in 2007 is 181 tons: 3 times more than that of a citizen of Qatar, the country
with the highest per-capita emission in the world (55.4 tons); 20 times more
than a Norwegian living on the mainland (9.1 tons); 36 times more than a
Chinese (5 tons); and 129 times more than an Indian (1.4 tons). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Our feasibility study showed that there are
big untapped resources of wind and sun complementary assets that, if exploited,
could potentially free Longyearbyen from its energy dependence on a polluting
and finite fossil reserve (measurements are taken at the airport = sea level.
+30% of wind on top of a hill). Of course, today’s logistical, operational and
engineering challenges, especially when it comes to exploiting wind, are
enormous, from storage- to permafrost-related issues and crossing seabirds
danger. At the moment, PV is the only practicable renewable technology on
Svalbard, although only for a few months a year (basically from April to
August). The almost nonexistent cloud coverage, scarce level of precipitations,
low temperatures, and land availability, make Longyearbyen a theoretical perfect
place for its implementation. Even if alone it will hardly reach the same
potential of wind in meeting Longyearbyen’s energy demand, it could still play
an important role in terms of immediate reduction of local GHG emissions. Thus,
I argue the need to prioritise its diffusion as soon as possible.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">The quality of PV projects in Polar
environments has already been tested. Summit Station in Greenland, and most of
the research stations in Antarctica, for example, use photovoltaic panels as a
complementary source of wind turbines<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>to
enhance reliability in less windy or dark periods, feeding common battery banks
in so called “hybrid systems” </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">A reduction of local GHG emissions may not
only slow down Svalbard’s ecological degradation and buy precious time for humans
and other species to adapt to climate change. It would certainly lead to the
loss of CO2 per-capita emissions’ world record, which today belongs to
Svalbard’s inhabitants.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04493280544812589178noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2069731235112545910.post-38506896411585293002014-09-23T07:46:00.004+02:002014-09-25T11:01:31.214+02:00Smart Campus project<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;">By </span><span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;">participants at the NorRen Summer School 2014</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;">Professor Paul Borza, Professor at Transilvania University of Brasov, Romania</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;">Professor Gady Golan, President at Hermelin Academic College of Engineering, Israel</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;">Kaveri Bhuyan, Researcher at SINTEF, Norway</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;">Vasco Gomes, Researcher at Transylvania University Brasov, Romania</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;">Mohammad Ostadi, PhD candidate at NTNU, Norway, and</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;">Nuno Amaro, PhD candidate at University in Lisbon, Portugal</span><br />
<br />
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<![endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Smart Grids are the electric grids of the
future. </span><br />
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<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXFCguT3UNQd0R1mSTWe8oeA1jpUPdZJ9JlR4fO1jONV4BuMOtW6FrLa06AabVzq6ihg-8ekszSNrm8B-uLJ89rbQaGBIJ_gdrplaWds_xNiPPUhHZAimjrC0VvdG4rEU7Z6mKTPjv2ZHl/s1600/Gr%C3%B8nnfase.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXFCguT3UNQd0R1mSTWe8oeA1jpUPdZJ9JlR4fO1jONV4BuMOtW6FrLa06AabVzq6ihg-8ekszSNrm8B-uLJ89rbQaGBIJ_gdrplaWds_xNiPPUhHZAimjrC0VvdG4rEU7Z6mKTPjv2ZHl/s1600/Gr%C3%B8nnfase.jpg" height="320" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><br />Although everyone in science and technology knows the term, there is
not yet a clear definition for it. To help people understand the methodologies
involved, our group decided to create a little example of a smart grid.</span><span lang="EN-US"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">The created project was named <b>Smart Campus</b>.
The idea is to establish a micro grid system, operating as an energetic island,
in a Smart Grid context. The campus consists of 5 departments/buildings which can
be seen as grid users. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> </span>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">The main goals of this project include:</span></div>
<ol>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Creation of a self-sustained self-managed
energy system;</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">To demonstrate a holistic energy efficient
system;</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">To generate consumption and tariff patterns
for optimization of energy efficiency;</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Consumer and government education by
increasing customer awareness;</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Dissemination and deployment of the Smart
Grid concept;</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Building a knowledge base of the smart grid
consumers behavior;</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Connecting to the distribution network and
other micro grids.</span></li>
</ol>
<span lang="EN-US">Like any faculty campus, this one is
connected to the power grid. However, it will only buy energy from the grid as
a last resource, since it has its own power sources. The considered power
sources are: solar panels, wind turbines, a micro hydro generator, and a diesel
generator. Since one of the main issues in existing electric grids is related
to energy storage, this campus will also have a storage system consisting of batteries
(for medium term storage) and flywheels acting as fast energy stabilizers to
assure the continuity of the electric system in case of a fault.</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">To measure spent energy and to be able to
optimize energy consumption it is necessary to add intelligent devices such as
smart meters and smart energy counters. The considered consumers for this scenario
are comprised of departments and neighboring micro-grids which are faculties.
This brings up the possibility to not only use generated energy in the campus,
but also to trade it with neighbors.</span><br />
<a name='more'></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Considering that a university campus has
many different energetic needs, the chosen network topology is a combination of
an AC grid and a DC grid. In this sense, equipment can be connected to one or
both of those grids, considering its needs. In order to not complicate the scenario,
the associated load profiles are only defined for the following appliances: white
goods, HVAC, lighting system, computers, and access and security systems.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">To implement and design such a system,
there are a lot of challenges, included in different technological disciplines.
This means that the following specialties need to be considered:</span></div>
<ol>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Electrical engineering – responsible for
the simulation and implementation of PV system, wind generation system and all
related control aspects.</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Mechanical engineering – responsible for
the structural and thermal aspects in the design and operation of wind turbines.
These specialists are also responsible for all heat flow systems.</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Science department – in charge of all data
analysis, modelling and optimization processes.</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Computer engineering – to implement management
algorithms, cyber-security and other ICT challenges.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Management department – to create a
business model, define and run an evaluation process to measure economic
efficiency, results, statistics. Also responsible for the project management,
policy and regulations.</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Design department – to develop the
interface for interactive communication with customers.</span></li>
</ol>
<span lang="EN-US">Not considering the raw materials and
technological equipment there are other components that need to be taken into
account to implement the smart campus. The computing components (software) that
are needed for the project are:</span><br />
<ol>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Solar power management;</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Wind power management;</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Smart meter management;</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Smart home emulation scenarios;</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Higher level micro grid management
integration;</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Communication among all smart grid
components;</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Cyber security – Hierarchic protocol
gateways.</span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">To ensure high reliability in the complete
system the following characteristics are required:</span></div>
<ol>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Power quality – to improve quality of power
in the network;</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Fault prediction – identification and
detection of fault;</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Fault management – mitigate fault;<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Communication software – to achieve an interactive
communication with customers and also with higher hierarchy micro grid networks;</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Power management – Manage DC grids, AC
grids, connection with the network and assure the continuity and reliability of
the power system;</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Software security – to assure cyber
security in all network components; </span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Energy storage management system.</span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">At the end of the project, an evaluation
and assessment process must be implemented. This process must consider the
following parameters: </span></div>
<ol>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Quality management – power, performance,
components and system;</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Validation – comparison of obtained results
with the initial goals;</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Academic evaluation;</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Economic evaluation;</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">ROI – return on investment;</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US">Impact on community;</span></li>
</ol>
As a summary, to help people understand the concept of a Smart Grid, a small introductory project for a Smart Campus was presented. This campus is considered as a micro grid, with energy generation capabilities operating in a Smart Grid context. This means that the campus is surrounded by other micro grids, which can also have some power generation systems. The grid context can be viewed as a hierarchic system, in which these micro grids are the smaller units one can consider. It is then necessary to understand that existing micro grids can exchange power between each other and with the grid. The main technologies and challenges were presented. However, it is necessary to consider that a smart grid is a very complex system, and many other challenges may arise in a real case implementation. The creation of real micro grid systems and the operation in a Smart Grid context can help improve energy efficiency and power quality, leading to a better utilization of electric energy. This is critical considering the current situation of energy and environment in the world. Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04493280544812589178noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2069731235112545910.post-56420546077028973882014-09-17T13:17:00.000+02:002015-06-18T13:24:44.824+02:00Smart Grids – What’s in it for me?<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;">By<br />Gabriela Pena, Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;">Orna Raviv, University of Haifa, Israel </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;">Ofira Ayalon, University of Haifa, Israel </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;">Peter Hall, University of Sheffield, UK </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;">Rikke Stoud Platou, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;">Shiyu Yan Norwegian school of economics - Norway </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;">Zvi Baum, University of Haifa - Israel </span><br />
<br />
Although there is universally accepted definition of what smart grids will be, they may be broadly regarded as a collection of energy generation, distribution, storage, communication and usage technologies that will allow consumers to flexibly access a wide range of energy services. They will allow greater freedom of energy usage, will allow consumers to become producers and the emergence of new generators plus many other benefits. Above all Smart Grids will allow citizens and communities to play a truly democratic role in the energy market.<br />
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<br />
<a name='more'></a><br />
The <a href="http://energy.gov/" target="_blank">US Department of Energy definition for Smart Grid</a> is “to bring utility electricity delivery systems into the 21st century, using computer-based remote control and automation”. Here “Grid” refers to the networks that carry electricity from plants where it is generated to consumers. This includes wires, substations, transformers, switches and much more. “Smart” refers to the “computerizing” of the electric utility grid. It includes adding two-way digital communication technology to devices associated with the grid.<br />
<br />
The <a href="http://www.iea-isgan.org/?r=home&m=upload&a=download&uid=845">EU definition</a> describes smart grids as an energy network that can efficiently integrate the behaviour and actions of all users connected to it - generators, consumers and those that do both – in order to ensure efficient, sustainable power system with low losses and high levels of quality and security of supply and safety.<br />
To summarize, it is an “internet-wise power grid”. <br />
<br />
Smart Grids will have a profound effect on the way people interface and access energy services and we believe that it is important to initiate a public discussion. History has too many examples of where new technologies were forced on populations without informed public discussion and where the resulting political fall-out has proved to be highly problematic. Unfortunate examples of this are the nuclear industry, which paid insufficient regard to the handling of radioactive waste, and the EU directive on biodiesel, which resulted in wholesale deforestation of developing countries.<br />
<br />
As things stand, the EU Legal Framework is at best embryonic and is certainly not fit-for-purpose. Current regulation that impacts Smart Grid deployment includes directives on energy efficiency, renewables and internal energy market directives along with new electricity infrastructure regulation. Relevant EU policy drivers include the decarbonisation of energy, energy security, quality and economic efficiency of supply and also consumer empowerment.<br />
<br />
Our firm belief is that future EU regulation should be firmly evidence based, deriving from objective emerging science and engineering experience and the requirements of EU citizens. It should not rely on the profit-seeking whims of large-scale industry nor from idealistically driven environmental pressure groups. In this blog we address the following question: The Smart Grid: What does it mean for the end-user?<br />
<br />
To initiate the debate we review the new services available to end-users that will be made available through smart Grids and the benefits that will results for these services. There are also a number of concerns that need to be addressed, which will be listed. Finally, we suggest a list of actions that need to be urgently undertaken.<br />
<br />
<h4>
New Services</h4>
In an age of increasing electrification of heating and transport, the inevitable decline of large-scale electricity producers and oil companies Smart Grids will offer completely new services and opportunities, including the following: <br />
<ul>
<li>Consumption management and control </li>
</ul>
<ol>
<li>Automatic/pre-set consumption control </li>
<li>Remotely operation of domestic appliances </li>
<li>Participation in demand-response markets (e.g. water heating, delay of white appliance usage) </li>
</ol>
<ul>
<li>Community sharing and exchange </li>
</ul>
<ol>
<li>The sale of PV/Wind/other privately generated energy </li>
<li>The provision of energy storage in your neighbourhood through domestically located batteries and electric car batteries </li>
<li>Peer-to-peer/community power exchange either locally, regionally or globally </li>
<li>The donation of energy to charitable organisations </li>
</ol>
<ul>
<li>New power generators in the market </li>
</ul>
<ol>
<li>New medium- and small-scale generators will emerge such as farmers, cooperatives and individuals </li>
<li>This will allow on the spot switching of providers </li>
</ol>
<ul>
<li>Smart Grids as a gateway/platform for other services </li>
</ul>
<ol>
<li>E.g. telemedicine </li>
</ol>
<h4>
<br />How does it affect me? - Pros</h4>
Although now self evident the deployment of smart Grid technologies will offer the following advantages over the current energy system based around a relatively low number of large-scale energy producers: <br />
<br />
<ul>
<li>More info about my consumption </li>
</ul>
<ol>
<li>Accurate, real-time and detailed billing </li>
<li>How can I better manage my consumption? </li>
<li>Monitor and reduce your Carbon footprint </li>
<li>How do I compare to my community average? </li>
</ol>
<ul>
<li>Financial benefits </li>
</ul>
<ol>
<li>Money saving (usage efficiency and participation in energy trading markets) </li>
<li>Money earning (as an energy producer) </li>
</ol>
<ul>
<li>Adaptation to climate change </li>
</ul>
<ol>
<li>Temperature control for vulnerable people, or automatic response to weather conditions such as extreme hot or cold conditions </li>
<li>Increased reliability and resilience </li>
<li>Smart homes – improved and real-time remotely-control usage </li>
</ol>
<br />
<h4>
How does it affect me? – Concerns</h4>
Any new technological revolution will need people to adapt to the new technologies, change behaviour and will naturally raise serious concerns, both real and perceived. We believe that these need to be debated publically and include the following: <br />
<ul>
<li>Consumer perception </li>
</ul>
<ol>
<li>New or unfamiliar technologies </li>
<li>Health hazards – radiation, toxic materials, etc. </li>
<li>Information privacy and vulnerability issues </li>
</ol>
<ul>
<li>Cost issues </li>
</ul>
<ol>
<li>Who pays and how much? </li>
<li>Who is the owner to implement it? </li>
<li>Who will run and manage it? </li>
</ol>
<ul>
<li>Regulation </li>
<li>No existing or insufficient standards for domestic or mobile production and storage </li>
</ul>
<h4>
Recommendations</h4>
The climate, security and economy driven arguments for the drive to a new energy paradigm are well known and progress needs to be made on rapid implementation on a number of fronts, especially the following: <br />
<br />
<ul>
<li>Research and Development </li>
</ul>
<ol>
<li>New and appropriate technology development </li>
<li>Identification of gaps and overlaps in existing research horizons </li>
<li>Address potential issues and concerns through the development of “people-friendly” technologies </li>
</ol>
<ul>
<li>Implementation </li>
</ul>
<ol>
<li>Demonstration projects </li>
<li>Pilots in campuses, neighbourhoods, etc. </li>
</ol>
<ul>
<li>Policy </li>
</ul>
<ol>
<li>Support and enhance research and investment </li>
<li>Evidence based policy from demonstrators and pilots (local and global) </li>
<li>Establish common standards and quality monitoring processes </li>
</ol>
<ul>
<li>Education </li>
</ul>
<ol>
<li>Establish effective and open international mechanisms to share knowledge and experience </li>
<li>Initiate widespread public education ASAP and address the pros and concerns </li>
<li>Share progress and status with the public </li>
</ol>
<br />
Saying the above - each plan is a base to a change, which should be expected and embedded within any future policy. As Albert Einstein said - " The measure of intelligence is the ability to change ". Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04493280544812589178noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2069731235112545910.post-30289804483922151052014-09-04T10:54:00.001+02:002014-09-04T10:59:54.213+02:00How to light up rural Bangladesh: Renewable energy mini-grid solution for villages<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;">By <br /><span lang="EN-US">Katherine Inzani, PhD student, Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and
Technology</span></span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;"><span lang="EN-US">Ershad Ullah Khan, PhD student, Department
of Energy Technology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;"><span lang="EN-US">Duong Le, Postdoctoral Researcher,
Department of Energy, Politecnico di Milano, Italy </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;"><span lang="EN-US">Nhi Nguyen, PhD student, Department of
Energy, Politecnico di Milano, Italy</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;"><span lang="EN-US">Livingstone Senyonga, PhD student, NMBU
School of Economics and Business, Norwegian University of Life Sciences</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Bangladesh in 2014: three quarters of rural
villages are in darkness with no clean fuel for cooking. Kerosene lanterns and
hurricane lamps light up the darkening sky and generate black carbon. People
cook their meals by firewood in open traditional stoves. Women and children
face dangerous health problems. Business and studies end at dusk. Sustainable
access to electricity for the 100 million of the population that are not
connected to the national grid is a huge challenge but will give widespread
benefits. Here we present a model for electrification of a typical village in
Bangladesh, and show that it is feasible, with some initial funding, to utilize
local resources for electricity and clean cooking fuel in a sustainable way.
This in turn will support social services such as healthcare and schools, and
encourage development of local businesses and entrepreneurship.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjyfeQMyJCaF6KmN4tsRBCfMqcbm3DUw6aQ9HWy23PfdIlgJ7rD6o5DNINy0mVjT0RwRft1mf4oqzFhdATmBOf7Ej3TpldUGbxgTRieLWYNBVQClX8gwlUE-F-Hd07YTasWP-voacfYgjHj/s1600/Mini-grid+configuration.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjyfeQMyJCaF6KmN4tsRBCfMqcbm3DUw6aQ9HWy23PfdIlgJ7rD6o5DNINy0mVjT0RwRft1mf4oqzFhdATmBOf7Ej3TpldUGbxgTRieLWYNBVQClX8gwlUE-F-Hd07YTasWP-voacfYgjHj/s1600/Mini-grid+configuration.png" height="273" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Mini-grid configuration</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Electricity is a pre-requisite for
technological development and economic growth of a nation. Around 30% of people
in Bangladesh earn below $2 per day. Countries that are lower in per capita
energy consumption have low adult literacy rates, life expectancies and education
index. In remote areas of Bangladesh especially in the rural and hilly regions,
the health, education and communication system are in deteriorating condition
because of the unavailability of electricity. In this context, energy
deficiency is one of the main barriers to poverty alleviation, industrial and
economic advancement, empowerment, and rural development.</span> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A typical village is Sherpur, located on
the bank of the river Jamuna. The village consists of 219 households with an
average of five family members. It is unlikely that the village will be
connected to the national grid in the next 25 years. The main livelihood is
agriculture and the lifestyle is simple, not requiring large amounts of
electricity for dramatic improvement. Electricity for lighting, cooling, TV,
radio and IT alone would bring enormous benefits, facilitating better learning
conditions in schools, with longer study hours and PC-based learning made
possible, as well as benefiting business and improving communication and
healthcare. TV, lighting and productive uses in community centers enhances
social life and may foster community based development. Risk of fire from
kerosene lamps and candles would be significantly reduced. Energy security
would no longer be related to the availability of diesel and kerosene.</div>
<br />
<br />
<h4 class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Energy resources from a hybrid system</span></h4>
<span lang="EN-US"><br />The electricity and cooking fuel needs of
the village can be provided by a hybrid system of photovoltaics, an anaerobic
biomass digester and a small-scale gas engine.</span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"> </span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Solar PV systems utilize semiconductor-based
materials (solar cells) which directly convert solar energy into electricity. Solar
PV systems have many attractive features, including modularity, no fuel
requirements, zero emissions, no noise and no need for national grid
connection.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">In a biomass digester, agricultural
residues (biomass) are converted into a combustible gas in a high temperature
digester, and the gas is cleaned to remove tars and particulates before being
stored in a large tank. From the storage tank, clean gas is partly provided
through a piping network to the individual households in the village for
cooking using gas stoves. Reduced deforestation, health benefits and hygiene
improvement through waste disposal are considerable benefits of using the
anaerobic digester. This gas is also provided to an internal combustion
engine-generator to generate electricity along with the PV solar.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"></span></div>
<a name='more'></a><br />
<h4>
Needs assessment</h4>
<br />
<span lang="EN-US">The load estimation takes into account the
needs of different households and public buildings in nine months of summer and
three months of winter. Load profiles also vary throughout the day, and peak
load is estimated at 22.37 kW, with average load demand 291.48 kWh/day in
summer and 153.45 kWh/day in winter. Gas needs per day are estimated at 0.4 m3/
person, with a total of 238 m3/day for the village.</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgWAqzH3KZWzx6UjA9aZs_i2YYO66aiOp2zDg9C_wvpySSKDb2nowNfDpfSoGmGS8jHw5qfKSOvFNWH4L2JK4R_up9B7fwvNN6DD8SjyxSSDSbogFhA_aiZ9R9NhB-T76YrCmPk1VZ-SAip/s1600/Load+estimation.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgWAqzH3KZWzx6UjA9aZs_i2YYO66aiOp2zDg9C_wvpySSKDb2nowNfDpfSoGmGS8jHw5qfKSOvFNWH4L2JK4R_up9B7fwvNN6DD8SjyxSSDSbogFhA_aiZ9R9NhB-T76YrCmPk1VZ-SAip/s1600/Load+estimation.png" height="400" width="346" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Load estimation</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjqNj473cXCiSQUIvJlFsy9DltbLMCGIQWqP9QTbsv96hk4TS5J_lr7MDV2sMCAarqY7KlevqMaFJZR_J0cAmeD50xhgGoeWDY9WseLxBXRgNV87StZrDOqsh5iH2SB4JILLr8hxhUYFMUp/s1600/Daily+load+profile.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjqNj473cXCiSQUIvJlFsy9DltbLMCGIQWqP9QTbsv96hk4TS5J_lr7MDV2sMCAarqY7KlevqMaFJZR_J0cAmeD50xhgGoeWDY9WseLxBXRgNV87StZrDOqsh5iH2SB4JILLr8hxhUYFMUp/s1600/Daily+load+profile.png" height="106" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="EN-US">Daily load profiles</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<h4 class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">System design</span></h4>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Based on these estimations, a small 20kW
solar PV power plant will be sufficient, with a 25 year lifespan of modules and
10 year lifespan of batteries. A capacity factor of 20 % of the solar PV is
assumed based on 4.8 hours daily of peak power output. Sizing of system
components follows the above analysed load profile. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtnwDocViJxsX1cyxTru8NC24e1Zsx_1ClpsRUN_Rax_8_B-ipN5fCdgYuy-Kx58gNpbgF1uxePrZFkf7CCoQldnoSJU7ccUhtxGtLW6XAdt1gO-n90ARbE0NFrTGZBIkyoqTbtWUcRarq/s1600/System+components.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtnwDocViJxsX1cyxTru8NC24e1Zsx_1ClpsRUN_Rax_8_B-ipN5fCdgYuy-Kx58gNpbgF1uxePrZFkf7CCoQldnoSJU7ccUhtxGtLW6XAdt1gO-n90ARbE0NFrTGZBIkyoqTbtWUcRarq/s1600/System+components.png" height="140" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="EN-US">System components</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Grid structure will be an AC grid with
voltage level of 380/220 V. Electricity and gas are supplied from solar PV and a
biogas digester located at the centre of the village. During the day, primary
electricity is supplied by solar PV and the biomass digester. Extra energy from
the solar PV will be stored in the battery bank. During night time, when solar
radiation is not available, electricity is supplied by the biomass digester and
the battery bank. Part of the gas from the biomass digester will be supplied to
each household for cooking. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<h4 class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Operation, management and sustainable
financing</span><span lang="EN-US"> </span></h4>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">An estimation of costs for set-up of the
hybrid mini-grid is given below, totaling approximating 130,000 USD. A rural
community cannot cover this high cost, hence outside funding must be gathered.
Government and non-governmental organization grants can be used as a funding
source. However, in order to include the community in participation and
ownership of the system, land and labor should be contributed by the
participants. This will encourage acceptance of electrification and a
responsibility to not misuse the grid. The company used for providing the grid
should provide after-sales services.</span>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjiPSQg1Zli8HFMAZPzYurIdF2ZzLC9gvAhRPAESoPSkvuEZIL0ucCAz0etN8fwrnxLBNMUN_Akext5uqwHQhMtpgirq_cGBx5fNfNZBl1lwvorGVOjK-Lw27eczQT0S23CCb-qqjEUmK8O/s1600/Initial+cost.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjiPSQg1Zli8HFMAZPzYurIdF2ZzLC9gvAhRPAESoPSkvuEZIL0ucCAz0etN8fwrnxLBNMUN_Akext5uqwHQhMtpgirq_cGBx5fNfNZBl1lwvorGVOjK-Lw27eczQT0S23CCb-qqjEUmK8O/s1600/Initial+cost.png" height="318" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="EN-US">Initial cost of the hybrid mini-grid. 1
USD = 80 taka</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Management of the electricity and gas supply
should be done by a local committee. This should be set-up in accordance with
the power structure in the particular region. Management tasks include formulation
of policy, collection of revenue, security, discipline for misuse, recruitment
of new users and management of operators. Operators will be recruited from
members, with the criteria of secondary education and a commitment to stay in
the village. Operators chosen by the committee will be trained in general
running and maintenance of the equipment, and will be tasked in security and
safety. When more technical repairs are necessary, external technicians can be
brought in. Regular servicing can also be done by technicians from the
equipment provider. Additional support for maintenance and repairs can be
provided by government, energy companies and perhaps mobile phone companies,
who should all benefit in the success of rural electrification.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"></span><span lang="EN-US">Education will be vital to the success of
the project. This can be provided in the form of group training and workshops
by operators or technicians. Topics to cover are operation and equipment
maintenance at home, responsibilities of being connected to the grid, hazards
and safety and energy efficiency. Customers who rent equipment can be informed
of proper use at the point of rental. Publicity of the benefits of the project
will be needed to foster initial and further participation.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> </span>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">The cost of electricity is based on usage,
with tariffs set at an affordable percentage of income and comparable to prices
on the heavily subsidized national grid. The tariffs are detailed below. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">The
cost of biogas will be a flat rate of 800 taka per month, affordable for middle
and higher income households. Rental of lamps and batteries will incur a fee.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgxh3XLRnFzD3YPdhc3rnlZPIrC4cI03TfjGg8IxQeftf6A-ERslt3A1-QdFp66QKeS8-ZIkHpR5NZ1xF3klbJZ-ow0lKJPBwpLKNQBleiNnA6l1NS4_N2dHs1Ze8EysJeNCAzDO6aqIxzq/s1600/Tariffs+and+costs.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgxh3XLRnFzD3YPdhc3rnlZPIrC4cI03TfjGg8IxQeftf6A-ERslt3A1-QdFp66QKeS8-ZIkHpR5NZ1xF3klbJZ-ow0lKJPBwpLKNQBleiNnA6l1NS4_N2dHs1Ze8EysJeNCAzDO6aqIxzq/s1600/Tariffs+and+costs.png" height="205" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span lang="EN-US">Tariffs and ongoing costs</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">These estimations show that the combined
revenue of tariffs and rent of equipment is enough to cover operation and
maintenance costs and the project is sustainable. The net revenue of
approximately 700 USD per month can be used to add solar panels and batteries
in accordance with growing needs. There is also the potential for income
generating activities to grow from the project. Local businesses, sale of bulbs
and appliances and community owned projects utilizing excess energy are all
possible sources of revenue. Another option is loans and micro-finance,
especially loan of equipment to the surrounding area. Funds provided by these
activities could be used to extend the grid further from the power source,
enabling a subsidy for new customers with a higher connection cost due to
location.</span><span lang="EN-US"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">This study has shown that electrification
and provision of clean cooking fuel on the local scale is feasible for rural
Bangladesh with the use of local renewable energy sources. The biggest hurdle
is obtaining the funds for start-up of the project, for which government and
international agencies must be relied upon. Once this investment is obtained,
the above model proves the potential for sustainability of the hybrid mini-grid
solution. Considering the benefits to health, education, economy and the
environment for those out of reach of the national grid the investment seems a
modest cost. </span>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04493280544812589178noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2069731235112545910.post-11059146082477925252014-08-25T09:55:00.002+02:002016-04-01T10:38:02.711+02:00Energigjenvinning av avløpsvann<span style="font-family: "courier new" , "courier" , monospace;">Av Tor Haakon Bakken, PhD-student ved CEDREN</span><br />
<br />
Anslag fra NVE, Vestlandsforskning, SSB antyder at 10-20 %
av energiforbruket i en vanlig norsk husholdning går til oppvarming av vann i
varmtvannsbereder, og ytterligere energi går til oppvarming av vann i
vaskemaskin, oppvaskmaskin og i forbindelse med matlaging. Det totale energiforbruket
til oppvarming av vann kan anslagsvis være 25 % av det totale energiforbruket
(som regel elektrisitet) og internasjonale anslag ligger prosentvis enda
høyere. Det aller meste av dette vannet sendes rett i sluket og ut på det
kommunale avløpsnettet med mye gjenværende energi (i form av varme).<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Ideen går ut på å ta vare på denne varmen i avløpsvannet og
bruke denne til ny oppvarming av rent vann, evt. til oppvarming av rom i hus.
Ideen er å utvikle et system som automatisk skiller varmt fra kaldt vann i
avløpssystemet i huset, dvs. før vannet slippes ut på stikkledning og ‘tappe’
energien i det varme vannet gjennom (for eksempel til oppvarming av
varmtvannsbereder eller rom) før det avkjølte vannet slippes tilbake til avløpsledningen
og ut sammen med det kalde vannet. En realisering av ideen kan være å
installere en sensor høyt opp i de av rørene som frakter varmt og kaldt vann for
å detektere temperaturen i vannet. Når vannet holder en temperatur som er
høyere enn en bestemt grenseverdi ledes vannet inn i et eget rør hvor vannet
midlertidig sluses inn i et separat system hvor varmen i vannet tappes. Energien
i det varme vannet kan for eksempel brukes til å varme opp varmtvannsbereder.
Den kan benyttes en varmeveksler, være direkte kontakt mellom varme/kalde
overflater eller lignende. Når vannet er tappet for varme ledes vannet tilbake
til avløpsledningen der det kalde vannet renner ut av huset og ute i gata
sammen med det andre avløpsvannet. Varme gjenvinnes dermed internt i huset før
det slippes ut sammen med annet avløpsvann/gråvann. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Det later til å være flere mer eller mindre ferdige tekniske
konsepter som kan anvendes til dette, og min vurdering er at det er ikke behov
for krevende teknisk utvikling for å realisere konseptet. Det finnes blant
annet piloter i Hamburg, det er gjort forskning i Nederland og Husbanken har
faktisk beskrevet et konsept som virker mer eller mindre klar til anvendelse,
med noen forskjeller fra hva jeg tenker. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
I en innovasjonssammenheng er det imidlertid interessant å
spørre seg hvorfor dette ikke i større grad er tatt i bruk og det er kanskje
der arbeidet burde gå videre. Spørsmål som bør stilles er hvorvidt det er økonomiske
eller institusjonelle barrierer som stenger for anvendelsen. Er rammevilkårene gode
nok, eller ville en subsidiering på lik linje med den støttet ny el-produksjon
(ref. grønne sertifikater) får gjøre at varmegjenvinning vil "av seg
selv" og komme i anvendelse? Finnes det en leverandørindustri som er klar?
Slike spørsmål bør besvares for å berede grunnen for «det neste store
ENØK-tiltak i norske boliger».</div>
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Tor Haakon Bakken</div>
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<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04493280544812589178noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2069731235112545910.post-29603365712029225452014-08-20T11:53:00.001+02:002014-08-20T11:53:19.649+02:00<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<div class="Normal1">
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<div class="Normal1">
Vi i Morpho Solar er en spinoff-bedrift fra NTNU sin
entreprenørskole som utvikler innovative varmelagre for solkjøkken. Teknologien
vi har muliggjør lagring av solvarme i flere timer.</div>
<div class="Normal1">
<br /></div>
<div class="Normal1">
Solkjøkken er nytt i Norge, men er allerede kjent i USA og en
rekke land i Asia og Afrika. Solkjøkken er en slags blanding av en utegrill og
et stormkjøkken, men varmen kommer direkte fra solen. Solstråler blir
konsentrert ved hjelp av speil, og varmen kan brukes direkte til matlaging. Vi
utvikler et termisk varmelager som stabiliserer solkjøkken og gjør det mulig å
også bruke solkjøkken på kvelden og når det skyer over. </div>
<br />
<div style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;">
</div>
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<img alt="" 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F2krzx1hs5n0FOG8asv7MqUXi8YfAJfJwBIicbhFdBShKYsZaAMhgqMlYVHiOvrP/WLAfL11SSGHJjCaYEK9BSg/gkMlXGSidQYAAi8CeYgaMs1mh8oQl8RWgq4tQdUrXj/MiQWCQOC6BSlfNgvhuHnYEl8V+qCNHDzaHuavzu0P6d035gTUHry0JetTwKhmmoE3sTO36DbF2oylKY89JVg3LdhrtBotZmpDGZfSk+RUu8JdRkYf40T6nj55o6skDtgDIaWHIwVX9eLDBSh0RP3/qbtV+taSBgQhOjxi2E/HwZfSUF1KCkMayfAg6ZPzIJMWE2iNIQNRF/NCXpQBj3h09Kp48pKRD/CORNsmAnmZ9TKXtCUrW9s17BHCLrylEYPrBmKHYvhth2c2JbfOuwBjIdDW/6N9QNteZh8BU4UPb9d10LCgCBErISHzQtg+KVk31RDAUBSBAy+hv2vyKfpKuAId+jJgKHUsFlImdKThcEn8Dn/jhfyihHnjaeXsX8VdGXBEGaJEvS7YfP38LoEThTKy9/xkMhHMBkOLdmG8pQcmJ9C8yM8OUvPb9e1kDAgCFEq4WHrIhh9KQXVoeQoGAzBjnng0VcjYgXBsC/0lGDSB8Z9oCNL6cu2PCd4G48TUO8J5mcNHSZkcEqjHS+PfobVI6EpB5M+MO4No77Q6onwO+39PT4EJAwIQmT4Rdg6H4b9kSzxN9WwImD4NXbOg4DWqyhrayjnbfhTltLshpU9wegNP+f2PeHe31DvCeanYMiDoUxpy+DEyvY9IcYX6ydRy3tCqxv+/AhH/kK5oH1P+DCQMCAI0RDOCQy+kOy9Q6+qQ0OxfQ5Kiuh/h8oyPDyHA8txag3ifNv98vcPAwBpcThvg/1LcfMQeLntfvmHgYQBQYiAgIst86Tj9kp2JAyGYCet1aHmqis62Ee6hTBY0dExvGuN4cNGwoAg6MYvwtYFMBwgBd0mksJhIILqEI2ah8HxFeTsmCiQMCAIWpXwsXURDD6X7CQQVofCYTgUO+dCUCju8bwdCYPOQsKAIOhT323iK6RI/HmC5CgYDMWOuRCIsjr0/kgYdBYSBgRBE34RtswHoz+SJX9OEAaDoXCYh1IRrBjT6+7RpmHw73ISBqJAwoAg6FAiwNZFMPwcLElOAgAAq2HFmC+p6wSN3T8KjR5gfgqGHBhKlLYMTqiLe0xdEwkDgnhvwvMEBgOREiHuobwLOwqGw7BzHviSXR16JfQGtGTA6A1mH8r4c6zoBrc94h5T10TCgCDej6AYm+fDsJ9knyyjACAxDPpDsHMuSrniHk+blQtw4E/81QMa3bCiF9aPRdpLcY+payJhQBDvoUSALQth9KUUVIfqzxPMl47qUGO8Atw5jhPrcWUnUqLFPZoui4QBQXQUrxBbF8BwEFIkeU4AQLhO8DV2SU91iOh0JAwIokMEPGxZAIPPJPuMcUN1yGAIdsxFSbG4x0NILhIGBNF+JTxsWQDDfpJ9sgwAwI6A/lDsmk/mBETrSBgQRDvxCrF5PgwHSvZ5AgBAUjj0h8BhAQQF4h4KIelIGBBEe5TwsHUBDD6V7DlBo+rQzgUi6UVKdDkkDAiizQTF2DJPOu4nYEfB4GvsksK9Q4SYkDAgiLbhF2HzfBh9JQVJkBQG/cHYOZ/MCYi2I2FAEG0g3Dtk9CVYoeIeSisaepHqD8GuhWSdgGgXEgYE8S784oZuExI/J2BF1N9PQKpDRDuRMCCIVvGLsXk+jL6Qgq7UiaHQH4Jd81EmPd0mCIlBwoAg3q5EgM0LYCgN3SZYDdWhEgm+qYaQYCQMCOIthN0mjAYjWZLXCQC86jZB9g4RHUfCgCBawhfuIv1csqtDFAAkhNTPCUpJtwmi40gYEEQzpXxsng/DryT7ZBmAhurQzvlk7xDxnkgYEMSbuIXYNB8MaehFmhRO6Q+GwyLwSRIQ74uEAUE0wi/GlnmU0ZdIlvjqUGIo9AZj1yJysoygBQkDgmgg4GLzAhh9JQUrxknhlMHX2Ek60BG0IWFAEAAAXiE2zqWY/ZESKe6hvEtSGPQGYddCaZ0T8AogkM6Rd2kkDAgC4POweR6M+oMtyXMCYXUohNIfAofFEEjneYKCVKz/AW6HxD0OoikSBsQHj1+ELfNhNEgaqkMRlP5QOCyU1hXjgkxYToHZcCmYfn14SBgQHzZ+ETbPhdHn4ESJeyjvkhgKgyFwWCSt5wlyU2E5EWbfIIcl7qEQLSBhQHzASoTVoQHSUB0KpfSHwEFq9w7lp8PiO5gPQ3acuIdCtIyEAfGh4hVi8wIwBkvBeQJWBKU/BA4LpbXbRH46LKfAYgSy4sU9FOKtSBgQHyR+ETbPpYy+BEfii9fCbhMOi6W1F2kuB5aTYD4aOYniHgrRGhIGxIenhIdNC2AkDbdXJoVRekOwS2rvMc7PgMX3MBtM5gSSj4QB8YHhFWLTPDAGScGcICmc0huE3Yul9WRZXhosvoP5cDInkAokDIgPCa8Im38DYyBSIsQ9lFYIe5EGU3pDsHuJ1O4d4sBiIizGIIesGEsHEgbEB6OEh00LKKMvpaE6FE7pD4GDlFeHzEl1SJqQMCA+DLxCbJwD5gCkPhf3UN4lKYzSH4zdv0trEuSmwuJbWIxELlvcQyHagYQB8QHgF2PTb2AOkoqbaijdQXCU2r1DeakwnwiLkchJEPdQiPYhYUB0dfxibF4AowFSUR2C/hDsXiitK8b5GbCcAovhyCTrBNKHhAHRpfGKsGk2jL6SgupQYij0B1O7F6NUSqtDHFhMgsUYUh2SUiQMiK5LwK3fRSrRc4KGXqS6Q7Bbau8xzkuFxbcw/5r+6hA3B7w8mp9JtISEAdFF8YqwaS7FHCTZu0gBAIlhlN4g7P5diqtD5t/BYiSy6U6C7GRYzMbtozQ/lmgJCQOiK+IWYvNvMBogDb1IQyi9IXCQ3upQCiy+hcV45NJ9siw3Bet/hukvyCD7UzsDCQOiyxFwsXEeGP3BkYa9Q3qD4SDN1SHzb2ExlP4zxrkpWDcDZjNRmE7zk4m3IGFAdC28Imz8jTIeKDXdJhykt9tEOiy+g8VI+pMgLxXrf4bZTBSQJOg8JAyILoRbiE1zwBgEjsSvE8QHUXqD4fi7tM4JclJgPgmW40RQHUqm1v0M81kozKD5yUSrSBgQXYWAi80LYPSlZJ8sAwAkhkJvsBTfVJOXDvPJMB9G/4pxLgfrfob5TBSk0fxk4l1IGBBdAq8QG2eDIRXdJkKhJ+w2IZ032uemwmIyLMYgN4nuJ3Ow7meKVIfEhIQBIf24hdj4G5iDpWDFOD6I0h0ExyUo44l7PB2Sw4HZRFiOQi7d9xjnsKk1P8HiVxSR6pB4kDAgpJyAh03zwPhKOqpD+oOkuANdfjrMv4PFKGTTvdczl4O1P8FiFpkTiBEJA0KacQuweQ4Yg5EaI+6hvIvwRnvprQ7lpMBceJ6A7upQTgrW/UiZz0JhJs1PJtqDhAEhtfhF2DAHTAnfRSqsDgVTuoOw+3eU8cU9ng7J5cBsIiyG0d93KCeFWvsTzGeSJBA7EgaEdOJzsWkejAdKQ3VI2G1iCQTSOScQdpuwHCWCvUMppDokOUgYEFKIm49NwupQtLiH8i4JIZTeEDguldZ1gmzheQJVEewdSsban0h1SHKQMCCkjYCLTXMpRn/J7kDXUB0S3mhfKp17h3JTYT4JFsNEkgTrfoYFOVkmQUgYEFKFX4SNc2A8UAo60CWEUHqD4LhUWleM89Jh9h0sR4ug2wQH636k/zxBahxc9krr37YEIGFASA9uATb9BuYQyZ4TAAASgildKe82YSbsNiGK8wQ/03+eIDsZa1Upqx/AJ2HQQSQMCCkh4GLTXDC+QorE7x2KC4LeYDgukdYkyOXAfCIsR9E/J8hJrl8xprc6lJMK8wmwFMGFCh8SEgaENOAVYtNsijkIqRJfHUoMpXQHS/HJsrw0mE+GuSiqQylY+xNlRvfeobw0mAnbY9A9ifnAkDAgJB6vABvmwFgakiAuiNIdhD1LUMYV91A6JDsFZhNhORq5yTQ/ub7bxCwUZdH62GSYqsJqLP0D/vCQMCAkm4CHTXPBHCAN6wQhlO5AKd5FmpcOs0mwGE3/Pca5KVj7I/3Vodw0mE+E5Rhk0z2J+SCRMCAkGLcAm+aAMVQKepEmhlJ6Q+Aotd0mcjmwmAzL8SJJgnU/UeazUEBvEnBgMRkWqsihe9vrh4qEASGpeIWwmwPjgUiT5JNl9SvGlO5AOC5BuUDc4+mQ7GSYqcLyG+Sl0PzkLDbW/giLX1FMa3UoOxmm42E5AnkcOh/7YSNhQEgkARcb58J4sGT3HQIAJIRSOlJdHUqD2bewFEV1KBlrp8PiV5qrQ3npMJtEWY4l1SF6kTAgJE9xPjb+BuYwyZ4TABCuEwyG4xJprQ7lpMBsIqwmII/2XqTJ1JqfYDWb5iTITob5JMpqEv2Hoj94JAwICcMrwsY5FLO/ZCfBq5tqBsLxd5RLZ7eJnBSYT4DlKFHsHcKaH2FJd3UoJwXm42ExHLkcOh9LACBhQEgWQTE2/AbmEGmoDoVQuoOxR5qrQ+aTYSGC8wTCDnQWc2g+Y1xfzhqHbDInEAkSBoTEKM7HhjkwGSYFvUiF9xPskdozxsIVY+vx9K8Y57Cp1T/Ccg7N5wmyU2CqCqsJyCPnCUSFhAEhGXjF2PQbxRgg2R3oGu0d2rNUWk+W5XJgpgrLsfRvysxJxtofYTGH5q7U2SkwV4XFaOTQfbUO0QgJA0IC8AqxcQ6YQ6TgjHFCCKUrPE8gzdUhUfQdyk3G2h8pi9koojUJ8tJh9i0sRpHzBKJGwoAQN14B7ObAeDDSJP5kWVwQpSPNc4L68wSj6d+en82m6leMs2l9bDJMx8NqDPJS6Xws0RISBoRY8YqwaQ5MBiNFkucEjatDf6JMOtcJ8jgwmwCrcfTPCbLZWDMdVr/RPCfI4cBMlbIaR+YEnYOEASE+3AJsnAPmUKRJchIAeLV3aIm0VodyU2E+GZZjRFEdotb8CEu6zxMIB2whgugi3oKEASEm3ALYzaaMByEtRtxDeRdhdchxCcr54h5Kh2SzYaYKi1HIp3vvUDYLa6bDcjaKc2h9bApMx8LyG+Sn0flYolUkDAhx4BdjwxwYDwVH8neRBlK6g7DnT2ldJ8jlwHQCLMcil/abathY8yOs5tBcHcpNhekEymo8qQ51MhIGRKcrzsPGuZTxcMk+YwxAWB0aJMUny4S3V1qNF8HtlcnU6umwonsXaU4KzL6FlSrpNtH5SBgQnYtXgK3zYdwP6bHiHkorKAB4GQDhirGUVoey2DBVhZUITpZlsbDmB/pPlmUlw3y8SDY7EW1AwoAQlQB//61btmywszt8+PDdmzeehEanJ8Rg8+xy3aE16S/FPbp3iQ+idAbBcQlKpbQ6lAbTSbAcTf+cIJuNNdMpi9k09x3KS4PpRFiMIXMCcSFhQIjEqVOnPv/sM1VV1Xnz5v0wdeq4//20+GfVpL8+rzUede+Qw/5jJ/fv3+/k5PTo0aOoqKikpKTc3Nzq6mpxj7pBXDClMxD7/pTW6lB2MkwnwHoc/c0bstnU6umwmk13twkOzCbAejzyyBljsSFhQNDPz9d38KBB48eNS2YnV1ZW5peURvh5par3hdmIutTYbF5pWFiYr4+Pr6/vvXv3XFxcLpw/f/HixStXrly5fPnhw4ev4qGysrJzB15fHaJ0BkhxdSgnBaaqsFZFHu1zAhZW/wBr2vsOJcNsLKzGkSQQLxIGBM1KS0uP/f23kaGhiYlJTU0NAFSUYvdSWA1vsdtETU1NZWVlaWlpenp6bGxscFDQrVu3Tp08ee7MmVMnT7q6uqanpxcWFHTSvCE+uL4Xaal0zglyUmH2LaxG0V9syWFjzY+U1WzR9CIdTs4TiB0JA4JmXC7X08Pj3LlzZuvXl9RQ4BXC9lcYD2lvtwkenx8aEvL06dOwsLCgoCAfb2/7LVscd+/28/Njs2LymmoAACAASURBVFh8vgi+tscFUToDsPdPlEnn/QRZbJiOg9VYFNDdvCGLjdU/wGqOCM4TjKOsRpHzBJKAhAFBM4FAEB4efuHsWW3jdYLsDGydB+Oh79mVuqKiIjc318fb29PT08nJabeDw5HDR/79918Pj4dhYWGZGe/5XfVVdWgg9krteYKc5PrqEP0rxqyGbhP03lTDgel4ymo8cum+bpPoEBIGBM1KS0vDQ0P2njhjsGxuudV0rB+G1Agan09RVGVlZWZmpp+fn4uLi4219d69e8+eOeN67VpsTIxA0KEr6eODKZ1B0lwd4sB0EqxF0JU6m43V02FN9001OakwmwwrEVytQ3QUCQOCZpWVlV7BoSf27YyYJQOzYRD9LtK8vLynT544OzkdP358//79FhYW/v7+mZmZVVVVbXp9XCDqzxhLb3VoAqxUkc+h+8kN3Sa49FaHkmE2FhajSXVIopAwIGhWBXjfdM3WGozNk5HaqV2pS0tLWSzW/fv3//3nHztb23/++efOnTsRERFcbouVH2Ev0kBKeyD2/inF9xibqopkK05WElb/AKvfaD5PkMvBelVYjSPnCSQNCQOCZnVFeRXb5ucuVIm/e4kS3zBKSkqioqJcXV3t7e2PHjly6uTJoKCgpsvO8cGUzkDs/UNazxMIq0NW40TTbeIHWM2mudtErnCz0xjk0D1g4r2RMCBoVVyALbMrjfodt1tz2f2GuEcDALW1tYkJCW5ubidOnHB0dHR0dIyMjhbU1CEuAMwROLgSFdJ5niCLhfWqsJ4kgm4TSVgjnBPQelNNFhtmY2GpSv+ACTqQMCDoIyiG9RxsnO68zbabnNLp06fFPaA3VFVVsdnsBw/un3e94XHIvk7vq4z13xXlpIt7XB2SkwLTCbAeQ391SHiyzGoO/dUhU1VYfoNccrJMQpEwIGjCzYfdbJh8jbz46w+fLlq48PLFi7W1teIeVgvq4v1rtD+r3f3n/WuXzly8cuvGjaTExPrzcVIhJwWmE2E9Hvl0d5vIaThPQP8u0omwHk1/ewyCPiQMCDoU52PDrzD5GukxFBAfH+/u5nbRyUmC2g0BDecJ/KE3GIeXoUJQDaSlpT158uTSxYt7HB1dXV1TUlIkM8Bey2Jh/XjYTKI/CbKSsHoarOeCS+89xmyYjaOsJ9HfHoOgFQkD4r3xi7BhDoyHvLqfIDEhYcuWLQf27aurqxPv0JoSnjHes7RJL9KKiorn0dGnT51azWSePHnS19e3qEgil5RzODCdACvR9CIV3k9A85wgFWYTYTmM/gETdCNhQLyf4nzYzqRWf42M1+cJgoICHR13792zp7S0VIxDa0p4o/2+1s4YCwSCR56eB/bvt9+69erVq2lpkrQRPpsNU1VYT6D/PEE2u2EXKb1zghSYqlJWY+gfMCECJAyI98AthN0srB7WpO9QRHi4m5vbgQMHeDxJ2LxPAcALP0qrP/b91Za9Q7W1tXEvX7q4uNjY2Bw5ciQkJKSkpETkw2xdJgtrx8B6PP33GGclUSbTYPUb3dWhZKwfR1lPJNUhaUHCgOgoXiE2/EaZDGned4jNZnt5ee12cCguLhbL0JoS3mi/90+Utm88xcXFXl5e27dtc9i168H9+4WFhSIaYIsK8vOjIsIDn8fzk2NhNx0bv0cRh+b3yBJ2pf6N7tsrU2E2CVYjyT3GUoSEAdEhxfmwm0kZD0VGXPN/yeFwfH19N23YUFBQ0PlDayougNIeiH3L3qfbRER4+PHjxzdv2nT27NnsLFqr6i0pLy/fvmPH9B+mDxox1mzZbAHj6yrr0dkJsc/jk8LCQsPCwl68eEHD321mElZPo6x+o7sXKRumY2GligJJKrIR70LCgGg/XiHsfoVJ0+rQK5kZGX6+vtu2bu2Ez823a+hFqj0Qe5eivEMN7N6UEB9/+fJlczOz48ePJyaKsMPa1cuXPlVW/mL0xOkjvszX7s1nfL3P3OChX3BSUhInJSU5OfnFixd+vr5+fn5cbkfnXllJlMkPsJpDc9+hnGSYjofVaHJTjdQhYUC0E7cAdr9izdBW7ifIz8sLCAjYvm1bUpJYqwTCvUP7l7e3OtS6goICNze3jRs2HD16NDr6vVpzt4iqq9u+0U5GptvimRMyNXumLu+pN2OMnf0uH2+fxj9WW1vLYrHu3bubk9P+T/NsFkymwWYuzXuHctNgOhHWpNuEVCJhQLRHcR42/AqTYUh/0cpPFRYVBQQEODo6xjzv1EZ1b3gZQOkMwr6/UC6S+wm4XO6NGzd2OzgcOHAgIiKCot6rD1NdXV15eXl6enp4eHiAf8C1uw/+tbfMWKaInTPUp32vovIFk8E4fOhQWVkZRVGN3yszM/P+/fvtW5vJSoLJNFj/RvOcIIsFs/GwFMEBCKJTkDAg2oxfiA2zsXoo0mJa/8GioiJfX99TJ09GRbVwz6WICfcOBVA6A7HvD1qqQ63g8XhPHj/W09PbtWNHRnq7O1vU1NQUFRWxWKzQ0FAvL6/g4GBWUlJRaTnyM7DnxxrLkUc22/w4a0G/Tz/76aefTp86FRQYGBMTEx4ezmKxXkVCUlKSv79/W9PodS9SuvcOmY6H5TDSbUJ6kTAQg4qKCnEPof24BbCbhTVfI/0dSYCGMDhz5kxQUFAnDK0pYXVo3zJ6q0OtKCkpuXHjhouLy8sXL8rKyt758zU1NTnZ2TExMUGBgb6+vuHh4Wmpqa9fWJAGi/9h+881eUkz5i/u98XnAwf0/3nGDHd3d38/v+zs7OTk5Nu3b0eEhwsDgKIoX1/fvLy8dw80m10/J6A3CXLTYDqBshpDkkCqkTDoVHl5ecePH582bdq5c+fEPZb2KM6D3SysHo602Lb8OJfLDQwI+PfYMQ8PD1EPrakXfpTWAOxf1vn3E/AFgufR0ffu3r16+XJ6s1mCsBCUkZERHh7u4+MTFBQYGxubmZlZ2eSbQVYSZT62Yv2oF8E+f58+P3LEiM8+/eybESP+WLp0x44dr447VFRWPn3y5NWZuMTExMiId10nl5lEmfwA67n0V4fWj6esJyOfrBNINxIGnaSsrOzx40dXr1z5Y8mSH6ZN+2bEiLNnz4p7UG3DLcSG2ZTJ4LbfaM/j8cLCws6fPXvv7l2RDq2plwGUzgDsE+dNNfn5+ZcvX96xffvdO3dKSgQURRUVFbFZrPCwMG9v76CgIFZSEo/LrapuegtbBYXq1HhYqXL1+sV4ut157DV16lTV8eO/nzx5yZIlv/zyi5OTU+P2HllZWcFBQcJ/kp+fHxQY2FqlqL7vEN031WSnwHQcrIaTOUEXQMKgk/j5+vr6+u7fv2/E8OGRkZGXnJ379+/PSZH4xu7F+bD7hTIZ2rjbxDuVlJRERUVeuXLl9u3bohtaU/XnCZZLwo32uTk5u3fv3rJls9ezZ4GBgeFhYZyUlBYrSBUV5WlpaeFxidG3r5TqD8fGSRUZCRWAu7u7l9ezAwcOrFu7lslkbtmypckp6IqKCj8fn4rycgACgSAoKEj4v1uQxWo4T0BrdUjYRttqLOlF2jWQMOgMxcXF3t7elZWV69evt7OzE64ZWFpZqamptfWeXrEozoPtLKwZ0ZZ1gsYqKytjYmJcXFwuX74soqE19ao6VCG2vhEURZWXl2dmZkZGRgYFBoaFhno9e8bhcJovEdXU1PD5fDabHRwU7O3tFfoiMdHnIc/wc9h9i4JUAPn5+efPnTt08OCvs2Y5OzmxWC1UYKqqqry8vIQ3epaUlAQE+PP5Lc2HMhMok6mwmQduLp2/bRYL68fCeiL97TEIMSFh0BkiwsPT0tLCwsKcLlxAw1yez+fPnTt3w4YNEpoHvCLYzYbJkLZXh16pra2Ni4u7efPm+fPnRTG0pl4GUNoDxDUnoCiqqLCQxWKFh4f7eHsHBgQkJiYWFxc379haVVXF5/MTkxKDg4K8vbzCQkPT09JLaupqcziw/h6bJr4qtiQmJj548GDnjh2HDx16W+fXqqoq70Zh4O/nx2t+1XOWaM4T5HBgpgqr0eQ8QVdCwkDkysvL/fz8BALB9evXnz550vhfhYWF/bF0aYvf+8SsKBcbZsJkeIvdJtrixYsXN2/ePHHihMivNIgT7iLt7CSora3Nz89/ERsbEBDg7+cXHhaWnJzcYj+7ioqK9PT02NjYq1eu7nZwCAkJycvLe32XTk4y1qlSVpMbb88PCQ7+7+rVEydOeHl5vW0AwjAQtgIUlJT4+/vzBW/24MtKgsk0ynquCG6vVIX1JDIn6GJIGIgch8OJiIjg8XgnT55MabZIkJiQ4OXlJVl9/3kFsJmF1cOQ3qa9Qy16+eKFu5ub/datbdlq2SENvUi1B2D/X6jopF7ZZWVlWVlZkZGR3l5e/v7+sTExOTk5zX9HYSEoOTk5ODjY69mzkJAQNpudkpzy33//XTh/PulVK4vMJKwbB+txwuqQUHl5+eNHj264u+/dsyc29q3/L6iqqvL29q4PA4EgwN+/RNDoUEVmYv0uUh6t1aFsNtaPgfUI5Ke++4cJqULCQLQoioqMiOBwOMnJyf/8c6yysrL5z4SGhERFRnb+2FrGK4Ldr1jz1r5DbfTy5ct79+7tcXQUCER27OtlAKXdH/tWdMJ5guLiYjabHR4e7uPjHRgYKCwENZ/0VFVV5eTkvHz5Mjg42NfHJywsLC0traSkpPHtaSEhIYcOHbzrFVCS+hJ2U2H7fZM2PoWFhTfc3Z2cnM6cPtXKHTvCMODz+QBqamrCwsNf3x6RmQSTabCZJ4qbaiibcaQ61CWRMBCtyspKP19fPo8XFBR07i17SSsqKp48fpyaKgFftYpyYTcTq79p196hFiUlJT1+9Mhh506uiK40EHab2L9CdNWh2trawsLCFy9eBPj7+/v7h4eHs9lsAb+F6xAqKysz0tMjIiJ8fX0DAwOfP3+emZnZylIQv6zC0/lEgfpXFVajmq/rxsTE3Llz5/jx41evXGllylhZWent5VVaWlpdXX39+vXLly7VCn84MxEmU2E9l+ZepFksmArPE5BdpF0TCQPR4vF4/gEBFPDI07PJgkFjBfn59+/e7eR2+U3xCmD3K0yGvE916BUOhxMcHHzw4MHsbFoL1sLqUKwvpfUV9rW8d6i8vPzJ48eZGR1s0F9TU52elhYZEeHj4+Pn5xcTE5OTk9P8yraamhoej5eSnBwWFubl5RUUGJiYmFhYWNim7QC5qdj5P858Bd3ZqkcuvPGJT1GUt4/PtWvXDh482Pr57YqKCh9f39KysovOzlaWlr8vXODpG4iibDCnwob2k2XCrtTDkceh87GEJCFhIFqpHE5oaCiAM2fOxMS0tkFTWFcR2w3y3ALYzsKa91onaKy4uNjWxubPpUvTab85Mi4QBsNxWB1VLSRBZWWllpaWjIzMnTt32vVUPp/PZrN8fb3d3d18fHzCw8OKiooal3eEampqhIWgoKAgHx+fsNDQ1NTU0tLSdqz65CRTaydg85Ri1vMNO/f0+/JLbW2tlOT61ePS0tIbN264u7sf2L+fw+G08piKiorQkJCg4ODt27fdv3tH3ZC5TXchNvwKi/l0d5tIxfoJlPU4crKsayNhIFqclJSXL1/Gx8dbWlgkvasDflhYmDA5OlvRq/ME9CQBgIKCAh0dnUULFrx80Vp/0yYKCwu1tLROnDjR4r+tAaiXPjAYUL5zSWFedm5BUXZ2VnZ2dl5eHp/Pr6mpqa6uZjKZ48aNs9tgy0pu0ycXj8d7/vy5p8dDj4cPvb29LC3M161bl5GR0fhnKIqqrKzMzMyMiIjw9fUJDAyMjo7OyMhocQXoHYQrxjbfooAj/AfPnj0br6r6/XffCfMgIyPj/t27J06cOHfuXPnbDpEBACoqKiIjI12vXXPcu9fN46nLQQf2vI+xbTbNK8aZLKwfB5tvycmyLo+EgahUVVXxeDxnJ6cbN264Xru2ctmyFPY7Pp5qamqePnnS2TtNhd0mVg95Zy/SdvH09LSwtFz211+PHj1q+6vKy8v//PPPL7/8cvv27cJJUn5BQUhI8PXrrscvXPQ7vgs245LUB5oxV6kbmmiqq2loqq1YsVxDU8PExNjG1nrxksW9ZHutXLly46aNnp4erW9kSktLs7e337J5s5+fH5vNKioqcnJy+vvvv48eOWJjY1NXV1dVVVlcXJycnBwRHu7t7R0YGJiUlNTWQlCLslhYNw42E5D3xqayp0+eKCoo7N27t7KyMsDf/+7duydPnHxw/37rs43y8vIAf//szCyr3ft3MP7KWSyLPX+hiN7qUDJMx8BqJEmCDwEJA/pVV1dfunhx+fLl27dvP3369K3bt/ft3btk/vw0zruXiHk8rqeHR+ctHnDzYfsLTIYhox3f39vCYedOGRmZ/l999fjx43a98M7dO0v++F1eXn7VqlXbd2y3sbXR0Fj589wFxlO/LpwrEzxP0Wz9aqP1poaGerr6Otq6WnoGuoaG+o6Ou3V0dRQUFNatW7t06R+zfp2pr69rbm6+1X5rRERE40/VioqKJFaSt6+3m7vbhg12dna2sbEvAJSXVyxduvTcuXPXXV0nTpx48eJFb28vXx+f0NBQDielxQME7ZOTgvUTYK3avN3/zu3bv/jss3Hjxs2bN2/hggU2VtYOO3eGhYW1/rzy8nJvL69qoDgxIm+5TM2Gbyl6kyCXA9OJsBpDkuADQcKAfjwe78cffxw7evSMGTNcXV0PHzrk7+d39MiR1FZLwK+kZ2R4eno2X7GkX1EerGdizfDWb6rpGKfz5/uoqAwaOPC6q2sbX1JZVRkeHm5uYT540KB+/frJyMhMmjhxq/2W35lr/lnzB8z6p1uMO7jJdt/fx86cPn3u3DknpwvOzk7OF53drl9fuvT3r7766siRI5ZW5oZG+ta2ltY2VvoG+suW/bVg4Xx1DfV79+5FRkX5B/g/ePjA1883iZVUV1eXX1hw5syZp0+f1tbW5ubmLF60SE9Xd8aMGUOGDHF2ds7KzHxrt5/2ykzE2rGwnYDCpt1Mb926NXvWrM8//XTpkiV79+yZ+r8pn/ftq6Gu/s4vBOXlFc9CIkrZz7FuXpnVrOgnN2taf0G7ZLGxbjSsx5DzBB8OEgb0q6urs7e3HzlixG9z5myzt497+RLA6dOnU1La+g3r5YsX3t7ezVcv6cQtrF8xbltX6vaKi4tzcnLS0tTct3fvO3+4qrLyqstVpjFz1q+z9A301q1bO3XaVAtL8/Gqqp8PHHzJTrd4pTyOqZXkZbZY98nMzPzuu+8MDQ1dXFzu3bubnp4WFxd3797df0/8u3nLRjNzM109nVGjR86dPzc8IvxVkaeyqvL+g/t/LVv297Fj/v7+jzw9T508qautfeDAAZrvN85iY9042Exq8hW7rq7u4YMHfyxdOm706PVr1wqPj2VnZ61ds3rggAH29vat319WBkTcOF9j8i02LOFnpQbFxjXvhNpBwl6k1mPJeYIPCgkDkWCz2cOGDZs+fbq7u7vwP/ILFy68cwG5sYAA//DwcFGNrygXdrNgMgKZ73ue4G0yMjMTEhL27d2zZ7dj67VvXz/flStXTJs+VUtb09zCfNt2eyfnC/cf3He66KzBXGv43dA6Rj+c0aVKWv5kLCgomDJlypgxoy9evJiQkND4X9VRdSw268KF89u2269fv/av5X867N6VkJhw9+5dLS2tEydPuLpeMzIyunbtWlpaWllpKYCOrAm3LouNdarNkwCAq6vrtP/9b8Tw4UaGho0PD1dXV+/fv/+nn37aunVrbu5bV4Nr0xOqmV9Tm2einJ9ZUPzIw4Oebw/ZyTCdAMsJyCNJ8GEhYSAq/v7+B/bvP3v2bFZWFoD79+616w7ImurqZ8+esd+15twRxfmwmYnVw97/ZFkrcnNzX7yIPbB/H8PQsPItK641NTUHDx38fsr3GloaFpYWGzbZ3bx1Iy29fitqaVVNxJVjlbq9j4+V2XfgrdMLLpc7a9bMtWvW8ls6DiaUmJiwbt263+bOGTp08NixYydPnvznn3+sWb36dYMgEclIxLqxsFFtXh0CYGtrKy8vb2xi0mJJkM/n33B337J5c+KbCVcvPQ420znLlOxNjXfsPbhy2V9P2rk207IsFkxHw/ob5NO9IZiQeCQMRCs2JiaZzQbg7+9//969dr2Wx+N5eHjk5NC6Ksgtgu0srGnrnWUdVlhQ8CI2dteuXXPnzq1o6et2eXm5tZ3VqLGjLCwtLK0tr1y5lJ+f/8ZPJARhzTAc0zl4YP81T69W3ovP57fY9CIrK+vevXtb7e3Xr18/b968mb/8oqOjM2XqlOCQ4JiY59evu4r2VEc2G+vGw3ZSk71DAKqrq69du3bo4MEAf//W70ANCgzcu3dvcHDwG/80IxFrptXazT5kb33nsVdGeoaPj09oSMj7DjiXg/XjYT0OuWRO8CEiYSBarMTE6KgoAGFhYRfaf9VlVlbWg/v3aevoUJgDu1lYM1KkcwIhPo/3IjZ27759M2bMeLXFs66uLj09PT09PSsr64LT+Sk/fLfOdM22bdueRzfrg/TCn9IaiP3LO9B3KDc399ChQ8uXLzcwMJjxywwGg7Fx48bw8PDY2Fg1dTU1TbVr16/df3C/9TOA70t4nsD2WxQ0TYLa2lp3N7cd27c3vxqzRcnJyQ67dr2+My4jEcyp2Li0JC9Tw8DQ3883LzfXx8fXtc0L9S3LYsFUFTbfkurQB4uEgWhlZmQImwqkpaU5Ozt1oIUnKynp8ePHVe9fyy7Oh+1ManX77izrsMrKysjISBcXl1WrVr260O3BgwczZ81ctHjRjBm/qE5QHThgwLCvvzYzM3V3d/Pw8PTx8Q4JCUnI5VZHe0NvIPYvQ2VHtlS5urr26tXrm2++OXnq1PXr1338fD0fedy9d8fASH/kyG+S2ezpP03TM9KuqhTZNRKZSVg3FjYTUdBCseXmjRu7HRzamARC2Tk5e/fs8fD2rc2Mx9ppsJoHQX5Jdd31K5dCQ0MiwsM9PT09PT07PuAsNkxHw2o4qQ59yEgYiBafzw/w96+rqysrK7vk7Nyxey6jo6P9/f3fa3mQVwjbmfSeMW4dRVFRUVG+vr7WFhYxz+u/+IeEhGzbvu15TMy58+cXLV6kpq5mamqqpqb2+++/z/j551FjxnwxaIjN8l+qNT+r3fdHhzvQFRUV3b57Oyg4iJPKSUtLY7FYKSnJubm5S5Yssd+2LSUl5YfpP7i7u9P3u74pOxnrVGEzofl5grq6utu3b+/YseNV84m2KyyrvH/iAF9nOHbOR3EuAB6X+/z587q6urq6usLCwo6fXRcegLAaS6pDHzgSBqJVUVHh7+tbVFgI4O6dO/5+fh14SG1tbWBgYMc3FxXmwmYm1o7qnDnBK9HR0ZEREUsWLz7UcF1XbW2t5yPPoOCgU6dOLly08IcffoiKikpOTg4NDXW9fn3HoWMn16/InyuTvvo7QQGtKyXAjh071qxdW1hYePDQgWuu1+h9+GsZiVg7FnbforDpV+y6urpbN2867NzZeseht8pmwfandLURz9zqbxItLi4ODQ0VfkXIyclpvavdW2WysHYMbMntlQQJAxETfkEWdpgICgy8cvky1XDtZbtUV1d7eT17+bL9n+bFBbCbidXDRHGyrHUxMTGxMTG//PLL4MGDXx2hysrKsra22rxlc1BwUJ8+fQ4cOJCQkJCYmJCSz01/eLFO6wsc0+bnZrV9ElRdXR0bG+vj4/O2Q8JpaWmbt2xet359Zlbmvfv3Dh893KT1EG3qP1i/bf7BWldXd//+/T2Ojm08eNjsyYmU8VRsWVSSyT57xeX06TM1NTUCgSA8PFyYsvn5+WEdmBlksmA6BtbkRnsCIGHQCdhsdnhYGAA+n3/+3Lm8vLyOPaekpMTT07N9hSbhLtI13yCjk6pDjcXFxUVHR5ubmv6+aBErKenVP//vv//mzZ+XlZ3l4OCgqaFRv10qPhTMITiyDKVvrJbn5eU5X3QODAx827sIBIJZs2YqKSktXbrUysrq2bNnr7565+TkXLp8ydrG+r+rVzgpKQ89Hh48fCgkJPhtj3ov2ey3VYeqq6vd3d337duX1rErKzITYTKVspkvvJ+gpKRkzZo1zk5OPB7P28tLuBkpMTGxvXvVkCusDo0mK8aEEAkDkeNyuf7+/sIOlK4uLkFv/1xry6Pu37+fmdm2Tv3CbhNrR3T4HuP3xEnLCIuI/PvYMTVNrYDAN4oY192va+tqslhJBw8c0LHckHDvKkxG4F8m6ur3WdbU1ERGRllYWPzvf/+TkZGxsLBo5Y0uX77MYDKNTUz0DQyGDBmiqqrqsNvhmuu13Y67z549Ex0dHf08+s6d29euuQQGBYrkXHdGEtaOge0EFDadc1RVVbldv75///4OTkcyEmA8FTbzwHu977asrGzL5s3W1tb//fefj49PSEjI5cuX27ebKIuF9SNhMxr5opkkEVKIhIHIURQV4O8v/CxISEi4dOnS+9x4nJmZedHZWXiQ7c23qUNdo4+54gLY/oK134i2OpT+HIHXEfsUSYFIiUD6C+SyUZQJQSGqKvKzcyIjY5yvuE786Wf32/XfW7lcLouVdPvunU2bN+3c5eAb8TzwvEPhQpWEpePdrruwUlKrq6tv3769bNmyKVOmrFy1UkdXm8Eweh7zjjs4U1JSTp8+7Xr9+vz589etXz9v/nwrK6vIqMiYmOdPnz29dfvm/Qf3k5JobTLxStZbq0Pl5eXubm7H/v67rfndRGY8jKfAdn7zm2p4PJ6Wltbp06erqqpKS0vj4uLe2djutexkrB8DG1UyJyAaI2HQGVgslvC/1ZqamksXLya/37nipMTEWzdvNj1wmxSIf/SRmwYARbmwnQWTEbT3Im0q8ArUelHaMjCQgYk8TL+C1Whs/B+2zYbjsavrKQAAIABJREFUXzV7VvJ3r8ja8JvXjzKJWxaHXfx713b7J8+e3rp1My4uDkBOScX9Q1urdfrlOyyLjYzcsf/wkSOHzc3Nxo8f179/f0tLi6N/Hz167KiwRQ9FURRF1dXVVVfXcHlcFispMDDA398vLCzsypUrrq7X/v33+AY7uydPn548fUpHV/vIkcOBQYH37t3z8PQICgkW1VXMWclYNwG2LVSHSktL3dzcTp082cG73rISYfw/2L71pprc3Nzj//574fz51NTU+Pj4hBYPKjeXw4HpRFiPJ3uHiCZIGHSGioqKp0+fCrsO+Pr5OTs7v+cD2SzWkydPXi+Z1tbiXz0slMH+pUgMw6aF1OqhyGrbp8P7yM3E2gnQVgRDHga9oN8Tuj2g1Z3S6gGNXljVHX/KYJUMDi5F8NVYX8+VK5YnJiYBqK6pTc0vKg15hHVfP18x+Nrly16BQTEx0XFxcdOmTVv6x9IDB/YfOnRo+/btV65c8fLycnNzu3jp0sWLzteuXfPw8PD09Lx69crhQ4eOnzzh4elx+87tm7dvRURFRkZGREVHMU2YY8aOvnjZ2dfPNzo6qunBZn4hODFvzKI6LCMRa8fAZmLz6hCPx3NxcXF2ciooKOjQk+NhPAU288DPb+WnsrOyVixbNmLECCMDAx63DTtxM5OwfiSsR6GAVIeIpkgYdJLo6GjhnV98Pv/8+fOpHVtLbCQhIeHZ06f1zQwi7kO3O2WoDH1FaPXGpjnI6ZT9IQI+tk6HliyYvcFQAkMJTCWYfApGX0pTFnp9cfQvxHqjpv54l4vLf4eOHIiLT7jvE+h31FywqDv+1s5gvXzsF3D//v279+/5+vns2LF94qQJ+/bti4yMeP48OjY2JiQkxM/Pz9vH28vby9vHOygwMCw0NCQkODAoMCQ0JDg42NfP18fX95nXM89Hnr4+Pps3bzYyMkpPT2/5prDKcrja47A6nnvhfdp8ZrGwdizsJjU/Y1xYWHj27NlLly4VFRV15MmZ8TD+H+wWgvvuO8sy0tNn/vJL3z59ct/ZtiQnBevGwobMCYiWkTDoJIWFhV5eXsKmmF5eXjdu3OjYHtPGXsTGevsHlhUXwGE+NHvBWAlMFWj0wO7ZEIjsehxuLjgJCLyOq5bYtwrGyjDsBYYSGPJgKlNGfSiNHtDugd2/I/yev6/PU/8g4e/J5XIPHT64ZcfmWBaHG+wBxgD8vfLV3qGCgoKXcS/DIsJu3bo5YEB/NXW1p8+ePnr86NEjzydPnnh7e/v6+fn5+/n4+Dx9+vTR40dPnj728PR88ODB48eP/AL8ff18g4IDX758kZGR8e6OQ4XJsBqFVXLYvxx+F8Bvf7ePTBbWjofdRORzmvyb+urNhQvctnxVb+HJCdRb1gneJjo6euzYsRs3bmxtbTwrGesnwJb0IiXeioRBJ6EoKiQkRNgov6ys7MTx4x07jdxEVBKHdUgLut3BUAZDHgx5MJWgLYNdvyKTpv/s+XlgP0fgHbjtxj+62PC/WubIstWDs9R6JZlMLtgwAww5MJUpQ2VodoeWEnYvRLAbQFUCp85dcHZ2Xrd2rdv1617PnoWHhgFAfCD0h+DgKlQ0PRlAUaiurg4ODg4IDEhNS0tKYj1/Hh0aGhIUGOAfGBAQ4B8YGBAaGhIVHZWYlJicksJmszMyM4q5xa23e2tBcgQYg/CXDLR7YdNk3D2KHE5bX5uRgLVjYDe5+cmy9PT0gwcOXLl0qby946l/cjxMpsBuAXjt23/s7OS0fNmyt/bfzkyC6UhYjUUBuamGeCsSBp0nPz/fq2FjeFhY2JXLl95/clCXn1a5ehi0ZcFUFH43h3FvaPbCUhn8t7ODD60qQ14aIh7iwg7sWYOtP8NAFcyJtVt/yN++iHXAJOTIpqDLRyOD/VLzCisjn0H7U6zsDi15OMxBaP2uoczcPG9vLxsrK0dHx1GjRm3ZtKn+8zrOn9Lsj33LUdGmFV2Kompra2tqqoVqaqpra2vfZzvWa0+coC1HGfaB9kdY1QumY3BpE1gRaP3ZWWysHQcb1eZ7hzgpKY67HVxcXDp4KUJmAoynULYLOnCjfU1NjbOTU8vXTeckY904WI9GngjaoRNdCAmDThUcFCTc9VFdXe3k7BwZGfm+T7yyCRofg6kMhgKYytCTp9S6w/Y7eDlD0OZ+n5VlyE3FyzDc3kEd0IX1bDBGwWw0bBZiu0HNtW2Zz25Fe7gHPvXwDwyKfhmXVsireJVi+RkwGQrHvxB+u6qiMjU7z/PJ03/++ff48eNXLl++5uLy8MGDY0ePnj51ugZAXCCl3R8H1VBGUx/W91FThVN6UJOB8Wdg9qb05KlV3WE8EEfVEPkAFS2tN2QkYc1Y2E1qPieIj4933L379q1bHWyLnZlQv3eoDesELSooKNixY8eLF2/uHxNesmY7rnk5iyCaIGHQqfg83uPHj0vLygBwOJyzZ850sLIslBQMZm/oKcKkDwyU6tRlYPYlru9GUbNTCE3U1aCAg5f+eHAKZ+2waxY0J1Jq47BhIvbp4L9dtf5uJbHe6SlJYfGJ3iERAZHR8Zz0vGJuZXWz22Cqy/kBN15GhN956nv85Kljf/99zcXF389PeNC6oKAgIT7+5u07a+22loQ/gs4QHFBroRdp1ktkieYQQOuK87DxZ0pDDkxlMBVh3Ad68lDvBr2+2PYjAtyBRlO3zESsGQPb71DAafKY58+fHz582NPDo4NTPeHeofZXh5oIDg4+ePBgaWlDZ9xMFkxHwrqFba8E0RwJg84WGxv76nzQ3bt3O94+s6YGR7Sg0YMy/hxqn8BImbft1+fup996dxe/AKnxePwvjm3EzhWwGA39YTCZjE2z4cyE3z2wo+r4efn5hYkpqSEvE33CooLCItgpKYKS0hZXJrNzcoKDglxcrh2/cOn/7J13XFP3+se997a3W21vf7fL1o5bd/ftsu3tsMvRukURNxvELbhFwYHsPWTIRjYhzOw9WUlISAgjYRNGCJB9nt8fUYobEK3V8/6jLwhnpu35nO8zPo9vYAgmP08oEKivHb3Q1dVVWVlVgCef2/StyfZFCLS6Zk2AAChqIP4Y+Cz5UwwzAACEVLCbhmx7CuyfvZJxcXgetjyHrJ0C+Lg/NmutB9f3btpPQKXRAgMCJm4a+seaYBK8+RLi42MvxgAAdDTBrvfhwLto7RDKGEHF4H6j1+vxOJylEWl4eDguNlZcOz67CBMCgwBGWg5seRo2PwObHwPvxVBZpDcDU9JEqxRciVj3d0GzFJj5kOQG3r8jjp8hO96GvbNg3xoItAfiJZBVWF5F9QDtvX1VQhGVyaHRGVVVVc1NTcPDNxm9oNfrFQoFAY8PDQkJCQ6Oi40tKS6ul8lMt5gfOazVEtiV4pyLJuu/Q+Aa0F5dEwwPQkUphG0B2zeQNdOATxrXNzDJFHiD9WNg/8KVDLzddNj6HGBDAa4uDJR14DIH3D+CnmvK801GY1Fh4Rlv74nPyVFKrvQY99+un2DstLe2uh31ZBVmgcd7cGD+jQ0QKCi3AhWDPwGFQkEgECxpRnl9fUhw8BgL0oeMSJ3KQOsCprRDt/8zWDtFt+e9hvTwtv5hMwDotea2WmH0kaZzuyHeHY58B2s+Aqd5cOJbCLGHvHDgYqHjyoutGaDfYGpq6+Dx+SQSmUGni2trO9rbb1qbP6BWCwSCgoKCyMhIP1/f1ORkKpXaOpYiTgBJZqjW+nnG+rcodCoAQKcciqPh1CLY8n9gPQWspkBp1Ji/uXuD0QRB22HDP8FxOjhMhS1PwIangDlqspjFlfra6JBOp8vKzPT28hqvlv+BUgwOn4P73UaHRoEAgIxR1rhkGpxehFaRoowLVAz+HLgczkj2uLS0NC019Y7D2Xu1ZmKzLk9myG1CmiL3IZumtoQfplbIC9pAWIwzeu+EY/8D1xmwf/bA1k8pP77YGXMUaujQLAD9H2WOCEBXb2+tpI7NYlMoFCaTKZVKBwYGblqf09HRwWKxkpOTw8PC/C5cyMrMrKysHF+SQ0RDdv2n8Oep65f9WhR1FjKOwb5ZYP0kbHoMsfs/sJ4CURth0qfSGw0wMM5MTEcj7JuDbHkCNv8DTn0K0a6w/k0oiIVmIeyxuE1cUzukVqvT09PDQ0MnaEkNAC1isP8MPJbcym1iooeth+NfK61eKUlLmMzDojwCoGLw56DT6crLyy3+ZSaTKS0tDYfD3X6Xmi5jjkRb2AwslkAV6FaBKylUAkYBGAUiTUhQO/1uTDoAzBxokQz3dp84euTXJUtliiv+aAajqbOzs7q6mkqh0Ok0gUDQ1NQ0NHiToZJ6vV6pVJJIpMjIyKDAwJjo6Py8PIlEotePv1lXQALnd3p3fxa3/O2qzTPB7mlk/d9gy1Pg8Dw4/Qusn4RjP0DfmN0a9EOgUsJYMrQmI5T7AiNlfFfLy4cN/wTHl6GBBwCAjQfbubDlNTjxOaiveXNvb28PDw8fd4MxpxBEtCs/W/oJ3Bff3m1i3LTIwPVdOPqpjENzdD8quzsLLJRHDVQM/jQ6OjpKS0sthkU9PT3BwcG3Dz13DprKG3R5Mj2+oqlUpMprgQK5vlhuKG+B8hZEcW3ARmcye3l5f/n550QiUSAQkEgkOo0mk8nU/f0DavWNsaCBgQGRUIjBYKIjI894e1+6dIlCJjc3N0+oZB4BAKihgO3b4PyKcf+HZodnweFxsHsaHKaDwzRwmIpsfRKcXoO68cxuqyiE8uCxbiwige07UBwxvgvP8QfqVSPoTgW4zoLVj8PxhdD+R+RdJpNd8PFJS0u7udfFrehph13vgONsaKiG1gaw/xQ8lk5edAgAANpk4DoPDi6A7noACPDzdXVxmczjozzsoGLwZyIUCMgkkiVE09zcHB4efnuHy36tWdBlILWYyhSmsgYtpRXBN+kyOXKOVIEjkRuv+h11d3fX19fTaDS3nTvz8vIaGxstT67Ori6xRCIRi8vLyiwtYN3d3XweL/HSpZDg4AA/v/S0NA6HM0FHnWtujIrYzIAQe2ishuPfgPVj4PA82D8L9s+Cw7NgOw2xeRxwQeM4oMEAvoshw2GMmyMGA3j/DKv/Bpe9QDfmZmDkaqysVQbO78Gpn6G6DE4shk1zgIs1APArq33Oni0oKBj3UIT004j1E7DpSTjwIez7H3LCalJqh/6grRF2vg8H5410ljU3N//+228UCmUyz4LyUIOKwZ8JgiAMOn1kQVBRUREXF3er8Y0j6I2IWmceMICkQRkZd+nseZ/lvy3buH79j4sW+Zw/TyQQmExmTU3NyMyD3t7eWpFIJBLl5+ampqTgcbi8vLwiLDYuLs7f3y8yMiInO1soENw0ajQRakjI5tfAb+OVHmM5F9kzE7Y/c9W/6AXY8ATE7btDo+/1x6SA1d/g8nhedfFJsP6fYP00hNndufFiNEoxuM4D989B1QgAMNgHoW7g+Fpb2O6YmIt0buV4rhsAABoF4PQ6bH0aHKfDlidhwz+BXzrug9yGljpwmwMHr09xX7hwwdXVdYLt0CiPHqgY/MnodDocDieXXynyiQgP9/f3H8uOQ5qByLCQ8pKSYmzh6dOnfXx8du3a9eyzz26ysdFqtQMajSVJIBGLc3JyyGQStrAwPzc3JTk5ODj4jLd3XGwskUhsaGgYt6vP7RGQkU0zRvsOIZoBOPklbJgCdlPBaTps/Aec+gnU4/HRM5shcA2yfAokuY5jrzYZuL0B26aB9d/B8zNQjK3mp6XuqhfpHzY+6kFN1YkN6p8eV3muuUnH3B0u3gBhm5ANj4Pj81f8QrY/Bwc+BemYZ9HcnrZ62DkPDrx7oz2GUqlc9MMPLCbzpvuhoFwHKgZ/PlqtlkQiCYVCPo/HYrP27tnj6+Nzx10S4uODgoJKS0qys7PT09N9fX0TExO3b9/+5syZdRIJh80uyM8vLS3Ny8vLyc7G4/FhYWH79u7Nzs5ms9k9PT13b4t0EwQUZNOr4LcRhq8O3mlgg8d3Gqe5A6cWg8PzsOVJcHkF5ON8DgoIYPsCrJkC0eNZGZjNEOmCWP0Dcfo3bPwH7F4AQvoddmm1uE384UA3OKiRSCRpmVmXMrLU5Muw83048DMoxzMogo+FrY+D3bQrUTL7pxHHF5E1U8DprfEd5+YXLIed74H7vFu5TZw7d87BweGOhWooKICKwZ+O0WjEYrGnPD39fH3l9fVdXV00KnWDlVVERMRNn9cGg8GSEKaQyU2NjZqBAQDo6elJSkqKj4sLCQmZNnVqQECAXC5PSU4uKioiEol1EklfX19jY2N0TExV1fijHGOkmojYvAb+G0F3NcxFugybXwLPRTIagcfhDh76FqymAG08o3oBwGSEIBtk4+PIhn9CiP349mXmwZbnwO45cHwesXka7N8CYtItN1aIwXkuHPoceq4oQWtrq5en51tvvXXI3X3A4vGgEMOBX2HH68DJGdMFaNRw6luweQIcpoHDs+AwDdk2FTY8BgfegwL/u200U9aB22zE/b83rglGIJPJCxYsqJ1wJwTKowQqBn8ybDZ76rRpn3/+eUlxsaK5OT0tLTs7m8FglJWWUsjk6wK+/f39BDyey+HcOMSRQMAfOXw4Ozt75YoVHh4eV4pHh67pIlar1bk5OSQi8VYNwxOnhoxseu2P6JB+CC4dhtUvw8U9oNN0qAe5tdKK1CjCto/HNJBrNAI8bH8G7KYjGx4Hv41jKi0doV8FHp8jm54Ah6ngOA3Z8hxseRYyDo1uvLhCqwxc5oH7RyNhd5FIdMrT85uvvvrm66/LSkeF+If6IXgzrHsc8oL/SDjfipKLYP0kYjcVHKeD3fOI9d/B/nVIPgadjeO4i5vSJoddC+Dgf6Dzdr5DOq32yOHDEWFhd3s6lEcAVAz+ZGqqqxd+8cW3//vf7t27XV1cNm3cOFIBQiWTiUTiyBq/u7u7CIttuJpdGNEJdX8/hUL55eefFv/669dffeXm6trff0tPUJ1Ol5eXV5Cff51O3BUCCrL5NfCzvrImaJfDqR9h04tASLP8vadHRSaR6Cz28eMnxZLxGNIZDRC8Caz/Dk4vIhseg7MrQT/OdGjiHsR6ypVhDw7PwY5pYD0FwjeCatSEekuP8aH/WtwmTCZTUVHRqpUrF8ybZ7V2rUB4wxxpsxnyziNrX4RgZ9DcuvKqswn2zUO2PIU4vojYPAGbH4NAG5BxJyE811oPbvPh4HzoVtxxW0xBgbu7e2fHBM1QUR4dUDH4kzGZTB7u7n//29+2b9vG4XCKiopYTKblQY8gCJvFolAoCIJoNJry8vLRwzJVKhWFQkm4lLBr586TJ09ar1//2quvzpgxY8QF7zZnpNPpiYmJSuVkGNdUExGbV8F/45XZlnwcYjcHdr8Jsj8uQ6PREAkEmUy2/8CBa96y74iABNv/hdhOBYepiM0T4PkTDKrvvNdoaumw/UXYYZn88zQ4PAu2zyFLpoC/05ULVorBeS54fGJRggGNJjkpab2V1WuvvmqzceP185NHw8XCtjng/l9Q3MJiL8kDNj6GbJsKG56CE98BMxOME3K3vo5WKeycAx4fjdGLVCwWu7u70+l3ypegPPKgYvDnI5FIli1d6uToKBQKq6ur/Xx9kxITRzp++Xw+jUYrLy8fqTgCgLq6OiqVGhgYuGf37uCgoMLCwr6+PgqFUj/mplM+nx8fFye/yybVGgqy6TXwtwb9EABA7hnE6jXws4PeltFbmc3mmpoamVR6xts7PSNjrKNpTGYIXI9Y//1Kn9qmJ+DIV+OOsw8PgeePsOlpcJhqOQ7YPQ9+v4O0AsDiRTofDn1iScCKJRInZ+efFi36/tvvIiIi7lxn1VwL7h+D7YvAv2GqjIwLO54Dqymway5gQm63gBgXrXJwew/c50DHWP/FDQwMBPj7J8TFG8fbG4HyiIGKwQNBX1+fSCisra2tra2V19dTyGQmnW64qgeYggIMBjOycUVFRVFR0dDQUH19fWpqauzFi4c8PCZQTt7a2pqRkUEgECZ40QLylTWByQADfRCwGaymQG7ATSPpEolELJHkZGe7OTtrx3ipAhLseAG2W1rVpsLmp+Dgx9A1/tVMQQhY/xNxeAm2/BNWToHzK8AylUEpBpd54PG5Rbr0en14ePgTTzzx9ZdfjuM70XRB8Gaweg0w4Rq9qVUPikHo6B0E72Ww4e9waQ+0T55bXIsU3ObAwZuM1rk9MdHRQUFB7e2T2uaG8tCBisEDSk11NZFA0Ov1RqORTCL19/dbLELlcjmRQLB0FFdWVhYUFHiePHl4QmIAABqNJjs7u7CwcHgcKQSL2wQZsXkZAtYDADTwYNe3YLcAKjC32qelpYVMJqekJDvs2KFSjaHJwGiAkM2IzT/B6cUr4f4tT8HuudA2/jktjRVgOxXWPg6+a+HSEXB4HUQ0aJOD69wRV2pVj+ry5cuR4eFpqanV1dXjOz4CA2mByLoXei/Y4CW9uW0gybrYf+y3KlyJoA/G41lxWyzRoYOzbxytc0coZHJ4ePgkjNVDeahBxeDBRSgUEolEFpM50qLc2dmJLSwcvNoqXFVVVYjB7Nq1C4/H382J2Gx2YmLi6DDUHRBQEJuXIWQLAAKUVLB5CvFcceNjenBwMDMzMyIigkDA02i0/Pz8+Lh4O1vbMbVB8YphzRSw+htsfhrsnwPH/4Md08DlbVBIx3dvAGDUQogDRO2FoQEAQIKcYO9ncOC/cOxrS2eZUCCICAtLS01VTCiJ0qmFkjaowuTqbV8b2PcVk1HDpbEJos78FsiTG1kter3prnPGbQ3g9h64zx97dGg0FRUVISEhTCYTbThAuQ2oGDzQVFZUhIWG9vZemWbM4/EuXbqkUCgAwGQ00un0vLw8X19fyyd3Q61IlJiYyGazb96MVhYInKv9AdUksHkdwu1guB+SvGDdPyFhD+j+WFggCGI0GoOCgn78cdGyZUt//OnHCxfOi8ViABDXiteuWZOZmXnnC6qvgjQvCLOFwwvB9nHY9AysegJsXkJk43xtBwAEQN0D5qsR81o6/D4FHGdAT/ugCfA4XGhISBEWOzhRNw55rzFHashtBS6NofLawqJVFLQCtslcXK8rkOlKG3QD+nE5b9yAUgJuc+Hgf6H7lv0Et0cqlV5KTCSRSGNak6E8qqBi8EDT3d1dXl5ueU5pNBoKhdLR0UEkEAoLC9ksFpPJjImOjo+PH5+D5i3QaDTJSUlZWVnXNzEoJWD/Bjg+D1IWCCiw+R2IdIMWAZxcjmz4D1BSLVuZTMa+vj6FQsHn8Qh4fHZ2dnx8/KVLCT//8vPKVStqhDVNjU1ZWVm+Fy4EBgaO1RDbjCC0bNjxGhRHASYKAreAbKLTJS0oJLD/E9j7Buyf21MYl5aPDQsLnficMgAA0BoRfru+sF6X0wiFDaaCej1GpsPItAVSXVmDrrHfeFe93i0ycJsLB/5zNxPtOzs6EuLjS0tKWialfgzlIQUVgwcaqVQqFAj0er3JZFIoFJbHll6vT01JcT9wgEQkhoWFFRcVTZa3hNlk4nK5iYmJIpFw5COIcYANj8G2qbBnLjjPgeidwCoB53fA/TNoEpoBurpVtbW1VdU1HA6Hz+crmpst4jQ0NLR129b3PljwwYfvl5aWEPB4MplcXla2d8+e7u4xjzHI8kN2fwMGHQCAUX9X1ZktUnBaACe+0nY3q/yc+5c/S0yPbeuehDofEwLtGpOo28juMDNaDMwWfUWHQdZrVOvubk3Q1gA7F8DBBdA5wTWBhQG1OiE+nkgkNDY03tX1oDzUoGLwQFPB59fLZABgNptxOFxxcfHIn2hUal5e3iEPj7t8sb0RmUyWmpJCpVCGjGYQUmH7C2D7LDhOg83/AOfXkZhdyK5P9f47OpoklbV1FDKZzqDXCGpweHxsbKyDnV1FRUW/Wi2RSI4dPfLajFf+9+03VCrFZDIZjUYulyuRSPbv389gMMZ6Nf5b4dzqSbirZiG4fgSnfu2UC1OxuLToMP2e98D3V0Ams+DSaAa9CTGYEfPdq7NSAq5z4LZuE2NEr9PFx8ZSKBSRUHhPPKlQHgpQMXhwQRCEyWQ2Xh2sWF5W5rZzZ1pamslkGhwcZDIYGAzG1tbW2cnpNi3HE0On05URCIU5maYzi2DzP6528E4Dh+fA5sl2j29JJBKNW1VbW9vX1wsA3d3dq1autLKyst2xIzQ4OCMj4/fff3vzzTcdnOzXrFmVkZEOAGazmcPh9KhUdnZ2ly5dGtN1DPXDsa8gY+/d3o9SAns/Nh35nk8sCY1NTE68VN/abhbTweoVyA+/24PfC1pk4DYHDt7Ei3QCGE2mY0eP4vE4oVA4lrHVKI8mqBg8uJjNZiqVOtJ1XFVZKRQKd7m5BQcFCQQCOp0eEhycnJQUEhx8yMPjbtvHbkbP5dMGqylX59I8Aw7Pgf10WPc3jeObA41XHDcH1GqpVFpaWnopISE6OrqzsystJaW3t9fXz/f112ds3bbF3t5u9ZrVlruQSCR0Gu38uXN+vr76sdTCyithx7vAL7+r22iRwr73BnbOz4sLuxAaScDj/7DiyLwA1v8CKfuujj/ptNaD2wI4uOBu8gSjMRqN/n5+SYmJbBYLXRmg3ApUDB5cTCYTm822zEkGACaTOazV9vX1hQYH792zh0gkhgQHW2wGAvz8bKyt4y5eNE7ie5+qDY5+ClueuLIgcJgGO56DHdPg3O8GenZPZ4dAIGDQ6SXFxYmJia2trb29vRdjYvr7+9NSUxoa5ABQXFzEYrFycnJi42MJRAIAqPv711tZzZo1a9/evbdzehiBjYN1C0B5FzqnqIX9H7Vte/NSgHdiZq68/toWMMMwnFwEB76AwXHa5907WiTgMgs8PgBV0503HhuawcHcnJyYqMiQwKBxz2hDeWRAxeDBxWQysVmsETFgsVhXvW9zAAAgAElEQVSWGtOBgYH8/HwsFutz/rxSqayvr+fxeGmpqWfPnAkJCmpuHl976i25fALW/w0cXgDH6bBtGmycot7xiiLmmKyaR60SUKi0murq7u5uS42TJfiQlpYWGhpyyvMkAYcbOUxvby+egCstLVX19JjN5sWLFz/5xBNrVq3icsZQF5R1Eg59AgMTzfG2SMH9wxabl9PDA3AM7vDQzWqulBLY9C7En5jgKSaXVjm4zQP3ebf3Ih0vvb29+/ftKykujo+NPXjwYN/VSmUUlNGgYvDgYlkZtF4VAzabrVarAaCjoyMwMDA4ONjV2dnZyYlEJI4sIPB4/K6dO/Nyxua2fxsaheD8Gux4BrH7F2L9GNi9DCkHmyiF3ucvZOTm9/df8x7N4/Hkcvng4GBZWVlWZqb3Ge9zZ8+O/BVBEAqFjCksrKyqAoCkpKQdO3bMmzs3JHgM0+1P/wIhzhO7A0Qpht1zW6yfx6VG17fc1rOzPA6xegJ4hRM70aTRIgW3BXDwkwn3E9yKhoaG5OTkzMzM77/7btq0aTHR0ZN7fJSHA1QMHlyuiMHVUcZsNtvScNDR3h4aEnL40KFPPvnkww8+WDB/fnxc3MheNTXVy3/7LT8vb+LGZAhAqA1YPwVbngab58DPGsQ0y8fNCmVxERZTUNAxyuimq7OzEIPZvHmzj48Pl8utqamOjo6CUaHppqYmTGFheXmZwaCn0WibNm70On3a29tbffu8t1YDrv+DjAvjvXwdQE8lw+jwTp/d6xIGQWO8U5TcbAL/rWD/EfT8ee49LVLYOQsOzhqLK/V44fP5mZmZtSLRD999N3vWrG+++aatrW3Sz4LyVwcVgwcXo9HIZrOv/H+LICwm0yIGWq02MDDw+PHjZDL54IEDU5955ovPPouPj9dcbRbr6OhIS029GBPT0DCOd8xBPdIxZG7SwQCjFDY9DRumwLFvgJEJ1+YhzGYzj8tNT0sjEokajQYAEATBYDDLli79+aef+Hy+Wq0uKy/r6fkjtqPVaokkIgZT0NzU1NnZ6WhnR6fRjh454nny5O1C2M21YPc2sAvGfgsA0Nil4l6OVq1/ETz+q1VILDpw55xpTzs4vguBVmD6Mwwb2uSwcwF4vA+dk18FAAAYDKa4uFipVJJIpN179kyZMiXn7teOKA8dqBg8uBiNRg6b3d7WBgBms5nJYIyUwahUqtDQ0NzcXKFQePzYsdmzZr36yishQUEikWhkdwKBEBISgsPhdHeyYlbrkIoOA75Ri2lGymraNHveN9m+0ZDgyavr7LzFs3pgYIBEImVlZfG4XAAwGAx4HO7wkSM1NTV6vZ5fWUFnXGOgLxQJMYUYAhEPAN1dXTKZ7PLly19+8cXoC74eDhZc3oCWW29wLX19fXgWPy/Qs2vdP+DUVxYHunHAz0SsHgPc2GpeJxFlHeycC+6fgmqSo0MjBAcFVVZWNDU2xsfFnTh58tzZs4rJSiyhPESgYvDgYjQaORyOxXnYaDQyRokBAGi12qSkpB22tk2NjfHx8W/OnLnwiy8OeXiUlpSM+EmoVKq01FR/Pz+h4BYDWACGDAhZoc+TajH1+sJGY0NaeO/5dUxmdaES8pqhtEHXM3zLNtoWpRKLKcjOzrJM2R3QDBSXFJtMpoGBgUJsYe+oRGVPT29pWSmmsKC1tdWg11sm8GxYsyY6KuqW95/kAce+h+E7T7PR6XQcDicsITnl7NHeTc+D1xegmpDvQvxx2DILlOKJ7DsxWqTgNhsOvgtd9+rp3NXVFRIS0t7eJhKJKisrB9TjnA6E8siAisGDy2gx0Ov1dBrtxlmVERERG9av5/P5fB5v8eLFn3/+uaura3xcXM0oH+aampqwsLDLGRk3jRT3as3Yei1Gpi1qNOIkvVwat6R+EKOE4gYDtl6XV6dtGbhd7gFBELG4Ni0trRCDUSqUdDq9sakRAJgs5nUz11hsFhaLraysAIDc3FxfX9+XX3555syZ+w/s9zx5MjYuViQSXmOreXQjnN95x69IJBJdSkjwj7hISgwZtn8FTn1h8SKdCEN9cOALOPEjGO401mZSaJfDzgVwcP5duk3cHiaTGRsbazAYGAwGalSHchtQMXhwMRgMHA6no6MDAPR6Pe1mYgAAKSkpM2bMOHv2LIvFXLt2TX5+flhIyLEjR9JSU0cC90NDQyQSyffCheKiousOYkagvtdY0qDDyLQFMl1eI5IvNxZItRiZrliuE3YZDWPLQwsFgkJMYVBQUFhYaF9fnxkxl5SUWJIKFnp7e8tx5R7u7suWLfvx50VLli7Zt3fviePHDxw84OTkZG29YfWaVcuWLQsPC+sZ0ABihH1fQtrJW53OZDKJa2sT4uKDg4KKSLSuGhbsmwcnP7tmuPEEqGOD9euQ6X9XBxkLSgm4zgaPya8dGo1KpTp69CiDwdBqtRQyGW0/RrkNqBg8uFjEwDLK3GAw0On0W02xj714cdGiRR988H5aaioArF27duGXX65cvtxm40ZsYeGIRWhHR0d2VlZIcHBVZeV1zwW1zizrMVR0GNhtBlarnt9ukHQbVcPjs9gZHh6urKxcvWrVxo0bsYWFVCq1rq5u5K96nW7b9m0fffyRv78/j89ra79mmaLX6aTSuoRLl1atWvnLynX8ZB9wfxtE5BvPYlkNpKamBgUFZWdnK3vU0N4Auz6EI59B12Q0auWHIuunQ+1EB8CNhRYpuM2Cg3Mmq8f4Vjg7O//888/q/v7m5uY7DsdGecRBxeDBRa/X87hci8Gn0WhkXpszuA6NRpOVmXnYw4NIIBQVFc2aNWvB/Pm//vLLwi++iImOlkqlIz4E9TJZakpKWlqaVHqTQTEmBO5yFou6vz8uLm7tmrWLfvjBw8Nj5PMzZ898+923olrRyN3ddHedTrfb/fCpd6bod/1H0/DHFar7+7OyswMDAy6np/v5+eXm5FzJgnY2gPMCxP1T6J6ksLteC14/wL75MDTJjk9XaKsHt/fg4IJJ8R26DSwWa/bs2SwWCwAYDAbqX41ye1AxeHDR6fUMBqOzsxMsPkUUyh0HsERHRr726quRERF4PH7VypXvz5vnYGfnfvBgclISHo8faVkAgFpR7aFDh+7daFyNRuPl5TV9+vTioiIA6Ferv/r669zc3LHsqzMhzcdXNK5/fpeTw6FjJ4qKsMFBQc5OTitXLJ8+ffq2LVvaR5Ifilpwmg2HP4W+SS2cb2uALXMhev9kHtOCsg5c3wH3+RNMcY+Zepls6dKlS5cs6e/v12g0RCJxrDMkUB5VUDF4cEEQpLi4ODg4mIDHX4yJiY+LM9xpbKHBoE9NSztx/ERsbCyVSvE4ePDjjz76/ttvN2zYcCkhIScnh0QijZgCRUVGnjh+/MC+fUlJSePqSBg7+/futVq7Vq/Xd3R0bNiwYRxu2xG2levf9jx74X8Lv1owf/6///3vubNnr1+7Jikpuanp6gpAKQGnWXD4i/EOiB8T5BRY/zgwLt95y7HTIoWdc+5dPwEAaLVaPB63Z8/ueXPnHj1yRCwWV1dVVVdXW8q9UFBuAyoGDzRMBiM2NjYvNzf24sWCgoKxu4zRaDSf8+fxOFx6Rsabb7wxZcqU/37yycmTJ4uLiy9fvszn8ysrKhITEgCgXiY7uH//2TNncDjcpEtCRUXF7HffLSgoMBqNCxcu/H3Fb7qxmJUO9mgc3606sqFHZ6JQKKUlpf/3r3+tXb1K1T9qBJuyDpznweHPJtHQ7RoQBEKcEdv3ofvuMtIjtMjAbQEc/Ai6JtN3aAS5XO7u7r5k8eKFCxe+//77f//b344fPw4ARUVFiYmJ2jv1mqCgoGLw4GJJII9U6zOZzNvkDG6koaEhIiIiOSmpCIvd6eLyfy++OOvdd3/55ZeLMTGXMzKW//47nU6XyWQDAwMikaiurq62tjYjIwOHw3V1dZnNdzeiaxSlZWWWmTxZWVnPPPv07j275HK52XxLVVP29Bf7urcv/zs34hSFV8Xn8YQ1Nf9bsjxmw2dQeLW4qKkWnOfA4c+g914aSPR3g+uHcGEt3Ppqx4pSAjv/A+5zJz06NDg4KJPJMJiCRd9//80335w9e5bL5e7bu9fBzu706dM8Pr+srMxibYuCcntQMXhw0el0fD7PIgZGo/E21US3Ynh4OCszMzw0lMVgZGZmOjg4zJ41a96cOT/9+OPa1atbW1r279vH4XCqq6os22u1WolEQiQS6XR6S0vLZHnfBwUFyWQyACgqKlq7bs269ev8/P2oVGpFZWVzc3NHR0drW6tYLGYyGUmXElY4uvgtf8/s9nKXmF+KJxQVFkbFJVyMjGzf+H+waQpgL0CzENk5Dw59ek+iQ9dRXQZWT0HxrTvjxkJbPbjOBff3JnFNoFarWSzW5YyMkODgs2fOJCUlMZlMy4wjkVD44QcfCASCttZWN1dXDvsBm9aA8qCCisGDi06n5fN5vT09cOums7HA5XB8L1wowmK5XO7ePXvmz53773/9a/WqVatXrz5+7FhUVNTmzZt5PN5IJMFsNstkMiqFQqNS5XL5XTrgG43G33/7baeLi+XXxsbG5JRkVzeX9RvWb9u25fBhDy9vr6PHjrrt2rnBer2js5NPSJjy1FI49z0YhwHAbEbysCUSXwewexG2PwcOL4LjTDj7w7jdJiZMijfYvA2N45ktykyHwsArPyvrYOd88Pjv3SuB2WxWNDcTCITw8PCAgAA/X9+M9HSRUKgdvsaaOyQ42NfX12g0IggSHBQ04nqLgnJ7UDF4cNHptHw+37Iy0Ol0t2o6GwtdXV2RERGREREMBoPDZq9evvyLzz77auHC9VZWM2bMmDN7dmpqaklJSXV19UibmMloVCqVTCaTSCRKJJLR7WPjJTMzc87s2XWjKlkFQsHPP/+8c6crtqgwOyc7MzOzpKSEzWa1tLWZzAgcXQHhh0Y2VosrNFtegR3PguNUsH0O1k+BDPcJX8y40Q/D4U/g6AegvUMp1xUG++HYQljzGODiQSGEXfPgwOwJR4f0en1bWxuPx8vKyjrl6env5xcfF1deXi6TyYw3qyZITko6cfSoQa8HgJqaGi6Xi06zQRkjqBg8uGi12opJEgMA0Ov1RUVFQYGBVCo1LjbW2dHR0d5+/ty5b7711ob160+dOkUmkeh0OhaLZbFYI/NPEATp7u7mcrkkEonFZHI4bKVSMTg4qNfr7/iU6eruDg4OdnFxWbNmzZQpU5YsXUqj0UYKHJubm29e1TrUDy5fQk7QH58k74WNfwf758H+GXCYCvbTYPvjkOMOurE9ne8eOR+xeQNSzo1p4+Iw2PgYbJ8Gjv8HLq8iXt9NoJ+gs7OTyWTm5uRERUX5+vicOXMmPT29urq6t7f3Numc9LS0o0ePWv6DUTQ343C44eGbzfNBQbkZqBg8uFjEoK+vz/IzlUq9+/+3BQLBqVOn2Gw2ABgMhrCwsC8//3zOnDnvvf/+ggULjhw+TCAQykpKSktKWEzmaCsbjUZTwefHREe5ux/08vJKSEi4dOlSVFRUeFhYTHR0XGxsXGxseGjoBR8fVxeXDevXb92y5cyZMytXrHjppZfmz5+/YcOGbVu3Ll68+Ndffw0PDx/dmXwdSB0DXN+EGvyV38U02PEqbJ8ODs+B/TNg/yw4vgC2z4L9YyC6l03C11EUhax7GqrvNI25sxn2fIBseQYcpoPtVLCaAtneYzm8bni4saGByWAkJyWd9vQMDgoKDQ7OSE9nsViju0NuQ0pKyuFDhyx1w93d3SUlJaNdxFFQ7ggqBg8uo8VgeHiYMhliYDns6LfLzo6Oo0ePfvvttx99+OHXX3/t4uycnJhYVFREoVDy8/JKSkoUCsWId4XJZJLJZFhsYUJ8fFZWFplMrq6qEgqFVZWVfB6PyWAwGQxceXlhYSEOh6uvr+/o6BCLxYrmZr1ej5jNjY2NCQkJ+/bu/eabb3wvXKirq7tJGx0+HNzeAlUbAIDBAL7rwfof4Pg8ODwDjs/D1meMG6fULJty7osXzh3eV4ApHLFovbeYDeCzGnZ+CP2dt9ss0R2sp4DDdLB/Guyngt1zsONlwIaD+ZqQjtlsHhwclNfX0+n0kuLimJiYY0eP+vj4REZGYvLzWUymUqkc+zhrrVYbHx9/8uRJSwK5r68PW1jY1Ng4wTtFeVRBxeDBRafT8Xi8HlUPAJhMJgaDcccO5AlTVVXlc/68lZWV9YYNgUFBZ86cOX7sGAaD4fF4ZeXlZWVlVVVVo+NCQ0NDkro6LpdbU1OjUCjGFZg2GAwSiaSkuDgoMDAuNvZyRkZhYWH3yCokchecXG750UROgU1PIXbTwXE62L6AbJgCe97uCbLy2r3lm+9/efs/77711luBgYEEAoHNZjc0NNy77wcAoLsF2TofwtxuOStHQgbbl5Btz4HDs1cXMS/Ctqlg/6qZW9ja2VlZWUkgELKzskJDQ4MCAwP8/A4fPpyUmMhis4VCYV9f3wQqetvb2wP8/ePj44e1WgDo7+8vKCiQ19+rpjaUhxhUDB5czGYzi8VSKK7MQWQxmS33sjLEZDKRyeT9+/atXLHCwd5+g5WVi4vL/v37s7IyKyoq/P38IiMj2SxWt0o1UnKq1+sbGhpYTGZycnJ5WVlbW9t405USiSQlOcXFxXnj6t+9jrlTqVTzkd96PK2z8NQ435P9jjPA7inE7gXY+Bhs+xdEOUNzjQnACKBWq2tra2tqaug0WmpqalRUVGREREhw8Llz51KSk6lUalVVlUwma2tr02g0JpNpcjonuHmw+Z9AiRv92aBGo2htr68VG31Xwca/g8N0cHgWHJ6H7c8iGx/vtnoq7Odpu5x3REZFh4eHR0dH5+bk4HC4ysoK9V2PFqiurraztb2UkGD5VaVSFWGxN7WcQkG5I6gYPNCMNhJoamoik8mTVft/K4aHhwsxmE02Nr8vW2a1bp29g8PRo0e8vbxOnzq1fPnyrKwsAh6Px+OldXWj64taWlq4HE5+Xh6moIDN5rS2tt601uVWDAyocUTyQZ/QfQf26lxeKTq4cZF7YMHmD01b/gZbn0JsnoCzK6Cq7DbjK/V6vUqlqqurY7FYOBwuNycnMjw8NDQ0NCQkOioqOjo6MTExOzsbj8dTKBQ6nc7n8QQCQb1MZml06OnpUavVg4OaocHB4eFhrVY78s/BwcHBwcH+/v7evr6O3n6V10qwn9knriBwKjzc3TdssP5t2bL573954aO3zdungf1UcHwedkxDrKeA69sDse4SEpbGYbGqhe3t7cPDw5PVzdff3x8XG+vr6+t1+jSDTgeA1tbW4qKienRNgDJRUDF4oGlvb6fRaJYHq8Wrjkgg3AdrAVVPz8Xo6E02Ni//+6UlSxbv27t33dq18+bNi4yMFFRXV1ZWlpaWlpWWMuj0ru7ukb0QBGlRKsvKynJzcoqKijgcTuMYItc6M0j7gd0FRV1QUYIF65eY9CpKZSO4vg3rp8DBj6E8AnTjvmUEQYaHh9vb22UyWVVVFYvJLC0txWAwSYmJ/r6+PufO+fv5RUVGRkVGJiYmJiUmxl68eOlSQuzFi3FxcfFxcRdjYq78cPFiUmJiXFxcUmJi4uXcy9FBg3YzGm1nu+7dt3z1aqu1a7bYO/qeONK+bSbYT0McXkA2/hO2ToOQdSDn3yPdplOp/n5+gQEBbDabSqGkp6dLpVICgTDGVDMKyk1BxeCBxmw2U6nUpqYr9js6nY7NZt+mzHxyaWtr8/fzmzlz5sKFCw8ePGi9fv2333xjZ7vj6OHDBDy+rq6uoqIiODg4JDi4trZ2YGBgdPhIJpNRqdTk5OTY2FgKhdLc3HxT10yTGeG3G3LrhjEyLUaJcCm8tgAvsqBD5WMDm6Y1RR1pkCvu0d0Z9HqNRtPT09PZ2dmiVDbI5TKZTCwWi0QikUgkFApFQqG4tlYsFtfLZA0NDUqlsrOzU6UZNlbhYPOLUHTxj4gYPgq2PgFbngTrp+HUEuBhYNLsPK5BWlfn6+vr5+dnmR2dnp5++fLlsLCwwICA+/DfA8rDDSoGDzpdXV1YLHZ0mWB3dzedTieRSEql8l5HjQCgUS739fXdsW3blk2bHOzsnJ2cvvz885XLl3t5eaWlpUVFRh47epTL5ZYUF5NIJIFAMHr0scU5p7S0NDQ01NLX1tTYODq+ZDQDTanPlgwXy3Ulcl1Ro6GgzVxTWtx7fj2PyspVAL/vXt/fuGkxQnvcebD5VwO1jKgGiUAEzm/D2ilw8EMoi4ahiXfn3QapVJqamurj40MikbRXzf78/fx2bNuWk5Pt7OREINzHQluUhxFUDP4CSCSSQgzGMvJsBIVCQSQSaTRax7Wf3yOkUunRw4dXLl++ZtWq06dOHdi3b9XKlV8vXLh08eIjR45cuHCBw+FUVFTk5uYWFxcTiUSxWHydQWldXV1aWhoWgykoKMi8fFkgEFgqiNQG4HYixY0GjEyXX6/HyHQUpqBY3J9Rb6QptMMPUv+s1ohUtOsLGs3l4q4uv/UV2PRchb7Dez1i87wibKdM0jjpL+cIgggEgri4uIAA/5KS0pEIYW9vL4fDOX/u3OJff/3yiy/mzpmzaNGi7lEhOxSU8YKKwV8DhUJRUlJSWVExugnZaDTKZDICgcDlci015vcamUzme+HCpo0bf1u27MSJEydOnHBycFi8eLGzk1N0dHRaampGRgaLxWIxmXQaDYPB5ObkiMV/RJAGhwaHh4fb2tqYTGZ5eXluTk5+fj6XxZDJ5XXtvXV9emEvCHqgsg/kWsgqJnp7nxnU3G3JzSTSrDbm1GmL6nVFjYaSRnOhEgQlJeozGyuIlIJmyFdAr27SFmqWJuTw8PDgoKDy8nK1+sq/X51OJ5FIsFjsxZiYgICAqc8+O/vddz/75JMvv/zS4gaIgjIxUDH4yzA0NFRZUYHD4WrFYt2o+LtOpxMKhbjy8prq6ntbaH8VpVKZmpq6a9eu3bt3u7q4HDt2LCQkJDIioqCggMlgREVFxV68iMVi2Wz2mTNntm3bRiaTSSSSSCRqVjSPdDUjCDKo0SgUCi6Hk56aUoTJx2LymUxGvVxuCTSZjHpXF2ffCxfuwx2NkV6tubxJny/VYep1hY3G4noti1ldVtuVrYQcmYGm1A0b71YM9Hp9bW1tYWHhyZMngwIDa2pqRuRfp9PVy2R4PJ7NZg9qNN3d3Rs3Ws+dO/frhQttt22jUCh6dN49yl2AisFfjJ7eXiaTSSQQrmss0mg0PC4Xj8eLxeL74002NDREJpP37dnj6OBwyN39kLu7v5/fpYQE3wsXMAUFMdHRx44dW7t2bVxcnFwuFwgEJBKpvLw8KyuLSqXe2JEwNDRUXV1NpVKw2MJiLBaDwTAYjJqaGqt167y8vO7D7YyRPh1S1WkgNutL5DqsTFvQaC5qNpEVutpuw5Bh4kqg1+vlcnlZaWlcbGxcXFxxcfHo0iC9Xi8Wi0kkEvPqGFQLw8NDTU1N9ydOiPLQg4rBX5K2tjYKhUKhUFpbW0fnkLu7uxkMBoFAaGpquj+SgACIJZKUlJRdu3b9/NNPnidOfPe//y1cuDA3NzcsLMzV1dXO1naTtXVEeDifz5fJZAw6HY/Hx8bGRkVGkohEoVDY0dExOruAIEhvb69UKuXz+SQSKSIi4ssvvjjk4cFisSQSicUj7z6kzW/PkBFRaZGOQXPnkLlXa9aZJnI9RqOxvr7eUqebEB9/KT6eTCJJJJKRbwNBkL7e3pqaGgIez+VyR8sACsqkg4rBXxWz2dzY2EggEFgsVve1xf6tra1kMplGpd6jYfc3paurq6y0ND4uztnR8fUZM3bs2BEVFRUWFrZv374tmzb9/NNP1us3HDxw4OzZs9gi7Injx4qLihrk8qLiotycnCtxJKHwupdck8mEIEhqaqqbm5uri4ujg4OPj09+fn4RFkujUmVSaYNcfvd9vPcTs9nc2toqlUpLSkoK8vPd3d19fHx4PF5ra+toRRweHm5sbGSx2UQisbq6+v4khFAecVAx+GtjMpnEYjEej+fzeNcZXDfI5UQicWQA1v0BQZD2trbMzMz169f/+OOPhzw8YmNj4+Pjvb28HO3td2zfvviXX7Zs2vTZp5+6uricP38+JTm5qqqqqqqKyWAw6HQcDocrL8fjcCKRyKJkQ0NDqampFrc+lUqVmJgoEon4fD6dTsfjcKnJyVgsNj8/H1NQQKVSpVJpU1NTd3f3g7B6AAAEQTQaTWtrq1wu57DZqcnJBQUFGRkZJSXFJBJRUFNzXcGVwWBQKpVcDodMJrNYrAa5/KbNGSgo9wJUDB4GNBpNdXU1DocTCoWj+5O1Wq1YLMbjcBUVFfcntzz61AQCoaS4+FJ8vO+FC8eOHg0KCoqMiLhw/vy5s2ft7ewWLFiwycbmyOHDBw8cCA4JwRQUJCQklBQX02g0HpfL4/EKMQUkIvHMmTNZWVkqlYpKpba3t9fXXzMvbHBwsKenRy6XV1ZVcblcGo2WnJSUnp5eWFhYUlKSlpZWWlKSeflydFRUcXExlUrl83gVFRUWZ72BgQGVSqVWq3U6nWUu2N3cr0ajaWlpaWxslMsbxGJxeXnZ5YyM/Ly8lJSUmJiY/Px8DofDZrGam5v7+/tHn8toMvX39zc1NXE5HMvQCJlMNrpXAwXl/oCKwcNDX18fm80mEAj1MtloD5zBwcGKigocDicSie7/m6bJZGpRKouKigL8/f18fc+cORPg73/61ClvL6/4uLhjR4+Gh4YW5OdjMJhFP/wQGhKSkpyckpKSkpTE5/PLy8tnvftueVnZqVOn6HR6bGzshQsXeDyeVCptaWm5qaG3yWTS6/UajUapVLJYLAqFUlJSUlhYWF5ejsFgoiIjN9nYnDxxIi4uLiMjIzQ01M/P7/Lly1mZmUlJSZ6enlwuVyqV1tXV1dXVWVxuAuMAAB7CSURBVH4Y+VUikdTW1lZVVbFYLDwejysvj4uNjYiI8PX1tWTOL8bEREdHp6am4vF4yxxpuVyu0WgMBsONStPb29vU1MTn85kMBo1CYbPZ8vr6wcHByTIvQkEZL6gYPGy0tbXRqFQSidR67UR7lUpleYo1NDT8KU8ck8nU0dFRUVGRlprq6elpb2d35PDhI4cP+5w7d8bL6/ffftu3dy+DwUhJTg4MDPT09NyyefN7CxYs/PLLZYsXz583LyIi4qMPP/zlp5+oVCqfzy8vKyPg8SQSiUgk1tTUNDc3d3d3Xxd1uZG+vj4OhyMSCdPT0xUKhUgkysrKEggENdXVdDr94sWLFBKJyWRSqVQikUggEPB4PIFAIJFIVCqVwWCwWJYmCiaNRuNwOF6nT0dHRfn5+nqfPk0iEnV6neFWxZ0I0t7ermhurq6uJpPJLCaTQqFwuVyRUNja0nLHy0ZBuQ+gYvAQYjabLf3JdDpddW1XakdHB5VKpZDJbW1/pqnZ8PAwncE4fuL46VOnD7m7L1uy+Ndfftm3d6/bzp1nz5xJSUkJCAg4efLkLz/9NOvdd39ctGj9unVvzpz51ptv7t61KyEhoaSkhEAg0KhUIpFIpVIrKvg8Hi8/Pz8hISEtLS0pMbG8vNyiEM3NzUqlsru7e2hoyGw29/X21tbWdnd11ctklsuoqqqa8F0oW1okYklLS0u9TMbn8Ub/qaurq66ujkwm5+TkxERHJycluR88GBoSwuFwamtre3p6BgcHH4SsBgrKCKgYPLSYTKa6ujo8Dse7tj8ZQZArZUhMZndX1594hQQCobGxsbe3NyoqMjw8zMPDY/Hixfb29ksXL96+davbzp329vbe3t4BgYErly//4YcfNm/ZsmTx4u+/+27lihUrV6zYu2dPREREVGRkTnZ2UECA+8GDm2xsVq5YERgYWFJSUl5eRiaRsrOzUlNSSoqKOGw2j8dLSko6e/ZsVmYmDodrbW2trKzMzs5uaGhobW1tb29vb29XqVRDw0Mmk8lgMAwODg4NDel0uuGrWH4eGBiwONwJBAIXJydPT8+qqio6jeZ1+rS3l5ebm5u9vf3ePXuOHztmZWXl7e2dnZ3N5XLVajXqJYfyIIOKwUOOpZkLh8MJBILRuWWDwXAlt8zna+7P5MgbUCgUp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<div class="Normal1">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Verdensledende
forskning fra NTNU</b></div>
<div class="Normal1">
Forskningen har vært et samarbeidsprosjekt mellom NTNU og seks
afrikanske universitet, med god støtte fra Forskningsrådets NORGLOBAL-program. <span style="background: white; mso-highlight: white;">Forskningsmiljøet ved Energi- og
prosessteknikk ved NTNU har jobbet med dette i flere år</span> og har kommet
fram til verdensledende forskning. Professor Ole Jørgen Nydal og
doktorgradsstipendiat <span style="background: white; mso-highlight: white;">Asfafaw
H.Tesay har stått sentralt i utviklingen av teknologien.</span></div>
<div class="Normal1">
<br /></div>
<div class="Normal1">
Vi i Morpho Solar har vært i både USA, Etiopia og India for å
undersøke markedet, og vi vet nå at dette er verdensledende teknologi. Det
finnes ikke lignende løsninger på markedet, men behovet er stort og vi har
allerede flere interesserte kunder.</div>
<div class="Normal1">
<br /></div>
<div class="Normal1">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Fra Europa til verden</b></div>
<div class="Normal1">
Det er et stort behov for bærekraftige energikilder for
matlaging i verden. Vi i Morhpo Solar har som mål å gi miljøvennlige og trygge
matlagingsløsninger til utviklingsland, og ønsker å forandre verden med
teknologien. For å få produktet ut på markedet vil vi begynne i markeder som vi
kjenner til, nemlig i Skandinavia og i Europa. Ved å vise at det fungerer her
vil det være enklere å utvidere til utviklingsland om noen år. I disse landene
vil stabile solkjøkken bidra til å løse utfordringer knyttet til miljø,
avskoging og helseproblemer som oppstår ved matlaging.</div>
<div class="Normal1">
<br /></div>
<div class="Normal1">
Vi vil begynne å selge solkjøkken i Norge allerede neste år,
og har store ambisjoner om å få nordmenn ut i sola og lage mat med solvarmen. Det
er gøy, sosialt og miljøvennlig å lage mat på solkjøkken, og nordmenn kan glede
seg til å gjøre dette neste sommer.</div>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDN0zVxS9XL-tZBl6E3tS_7O-_XCyULM9Ldy_l1eHBRWlQ9_w4NeRnhp0iFH6OM2sDkeFaVY8Jvotk6Y9uGDp3LTWZfXWSwNFwkUw_UzDPAezDuU_V9pi6J0M9lH0iAUxX4XrFK4sHYsiR/s1600/GGSeimLagerMat.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDN0zVxS9XL-tZBl6E3tS_7O-_XCyULM9Ldy_l1eHBRWlQ9_w4NeRnhp0iFH6OM2sDkeFaVY8Jvotk6Y9uGDp3LTWZfXWSwNFwkUw_UzDPAezDuU_V9pi6J0M9lH0iAUxX4XrFK4sHYsiR/s1600/GGSeimLagerMat.jpg" height="311" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Daglig leder Guro Grytli Seim (til høyre) lager mat på solkjøkkenet som vil være til salgs i Norge neste år.</td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br /></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;">
Det at vi fikk Grønn Fases energipris er en vanvittig
motivasjonsfaktor for oss. Pengene vil bli brukt til produktutvikling slik at
vi klarer å lage et best mulig produkt. Teknologien fra NTNU fungerer, men vi
må tilpasse den for å lage et perfekt solkjøkken. </div>
<div style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;">
<br /></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9rZopho6owqiLxexy6cb1ddDvtpgmO_MrYXjYXIZ7UzI9hU6ew46y-55F-FePkwvjBMADr3-O-EV6kfH7RNFv4Uhg5ZX97II7843OM1Nqmv7Z08s1aZwEMSWmvLYO2N5hvFBF0A6ziDzq/s1600/Prisoverrekkelse.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9rZopho6owqiLxexy6cb1ddDvtpgmO_MrYXjYXIZ7UzI9hU6ew46y-55F-FePkwvjBMADr3-O-EV6kfH7RNFv4Uhg5ZX97II7843OM1Nqmv7Z08s1aZwEMSWmvLYO2N5hvFBF0A6ziDzq/s1600/Prisoverrekkelse.jpg" height="320" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Olje- og energiminister Tord Lien overrekker Grønn Fases energipris til markedssjef Even Haug Larasen (til venstre).</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;">
<br /></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04493280544812589178noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2069731235112545910.post-62027669884646941082014-08-18T14:53:00.001+02:002014-08-18T14:53:35.400+02:00Olje- og energiministeren delte ut Grønn Fases energiprisUnder avslutningen av årets <a href="http://norren.no/" target="_blank">NorRen </a>(Norsk sommerskole for fornybar energi), delte Olje- og
energiminister Tord Lien ut tankesmias energipris for 2014. Prisen ble i år delt ut
for tredje gang, og denne gangen til to vinnere, som hver mottok 50 000 kroner.
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Årets ene vinner er Even H. Larsen og Guro G. Seim, masterstudenter ved NTNUs entreprenørskole, som sammen utgjør studentbedriften MorphoSolar. De har utviklet en solgrill, som allerede
er på kommersialiseringsstadiet, samtidig som de jobber med å utvikle prototyper.
Mer informasjon om prosjektet deres postes her i løpet av kort tid.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Den andre vinneren er Tor Haakon Bakken, PhD-student ved CEDREN, og forsker ved SINTEF. Han mottok prisen
for sin idé om å utnytte energien fra varmtvann i
bygninger. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
I sin tale vektla ministeren viktigheten av forskning og utvikling, og arbeid for å skaffe ny kunnskap for å løse klimautfordringen. Han roste deltakerne både ved sommerskolen og i konkurransen, for deres sterke engasjement for en svært viktig sak. "Regjeringen har høye ambisjoner for Norge som kunnskapsnasjon. Forskning og utvikling er fundamentelt for å utvikle kunnskap og teknologi som kan bringe verden i riktig retning - også på fornybar-feltet. Grønn Fases energipris har en viktig rolle når det gjelder å motivere studenter og PhD-kandidater til å realisere ideer og ta kreative idéer på feltet videre."</div>
<br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhFzFL23NZaFqLlSvDwxU7OpsXSZxCfBLZFt3IPilt5PHMw45JdTuwx2mTqVG_OcH3GGMkE8NVKE3nFf_Q_9aH2tnJiyqqGYS16xkBToSlsz3qIlZ8T7vLjoDVSmdWqoeiR_HH7R_KorsGk/s1600/+20140815_121902.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhFzFL23NZaFqLlSvDwxU7OpsXSZxCfBLZFt3IPilt5PHMw45JdTuwx2mTqVG_OcH3GGMkE8NVKE3nFf_Q_9aH2tnJiyqqGYS16xkBToSlsz3qIlZ8T7vLjoDVSmdWqoeiR_HH7R_KorsGk/s1600/+20140815_121902.jpg" height="480" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Lykkelige vinnere Even H. Larsen (t.v.) og Tor Haakon Bakken gratuleres av olje- og energiminister Tord Lien.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Om vinnerne sier juryen:<br />
<br />
<span style="mso-ansi-language: NO-BOK;"></span><br />
<a name='more'></a>Årets vinnere har begge
levert sterke bidrag. De befinner seg i hver sin ende av innovasjonsskalaen.
Den første lanserer en ide om hvordan energi fra varmtvann kan gjenvinnes på en
bedre måte, den andre har allerede laget pilotprodukter av sin innovasjon, en
solovn med integrert varmelagring, og er allerede i kommersialiseringsstadiet.<span style="mso-ansi-language: NO-BOK;"> </span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: NO-BOK;">Begrunnelse, Even
Sønnik Haug Larsen og Guro Grytli Seim - MorphoSolar solovn</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: NO-BOK;">En godt gjennomtenkt,
og delvis testet, teknologisk løsning, som vil løse en viktig utfordring
knyttet til solfangere, nemlig å kunne nyttiggjøre seg energien på et
annet tidspunkt enn den fanges.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: NO-BOK;">Produktet kan
erstatte ressurskrevende og energimessig ineffektive vedovner som i dag er i
bruk i store deler av verden <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>.
Prosjektet og innovasjonen vil i tillegg til å øke funksjonaliteten til dagens solovner,
også bidra til et bedre inneklima for brukerne av ovnen, uten røyk og
partikler. Om teknologien tas i bruk i stor skala, vil det bidra til å redusere
avskoging og jorderosjon i svært utsatte regioner.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: NO-BOK;">Prisvinnerne har en
god plan for å ta ideen videre kommersielt, og prispengene er tenkt å skulle
bidra til forretningsutvikling knyttet til ideen, noe som er godt beskrevet i
prosjektplanen.</span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: NO-BOK;">Begrunnelse, Tor
Haakon Bakken –gjenvinning av varmtvann</span>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: NO-BOK;">En meget spennende
ide som har et godt potensiale til energigjenvinning i alle bygninger som
bruker varmtvann. En hovedutfordring ved gjenvinning av spillvarme er
temperaturnivået. Den foreslåtte løsningen vil hindre at spillvarme med høy
temperatur blandes ut med kaldt vann i avløpet og dermed blir vanskeligere å
gjenvinne. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: NO-BOK;">Løsningen vil kunne gi
et nyttig bidrag til ytterligere energisparing. Store mengder energi går tapt fordi
energien i <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>varmtvann ikke gjenvinnes <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>før vannet går<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>i avløpet. Hvis innovasjonen blir brukt i hjem, skoler og sykehus verden
rundt kan dette være et godt bidrag til å redusere <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>klimagassutslippene. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: NO-BOK;">Prisvinneren
beskriver i sitt forslag en ide som må bearbeides videre. Det er ikke er klart
hvordan varmtvanngjenvinningen skal løses praktisk, men likevel er det en
spennende ide, med potensiale som juryen gjerne vil se testet i praksis. Prispengene
er tenkt brukt til å konkretisere ideen.</span></div>
<br />
Juryen har bestått av:<br />
Gabriella Tranell (NTNU), Nils Røkke (SINTEF), Tobias Boström (UiT), Anders Elverhøi (UiO), Helle Grønli (enova), Rune Volla (Norsk forskningsråd).<br /> Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04493280544812589178noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2069731235112545910.post-33748316938205502672014-02-24T09:08:00.000+01:002014-03-08T15:12:49.388+01:00Finn en løsning for fremtiden – vinn 50 000 kr!Hvert andre år deler Grønn Fase ut en pris
på kr 50 000 for beste idé/konsept/prosjektskisse som fremmer miljø- og
klimavennlig energi. I år er sjansen her igjen. <br />For tredje gang utlyser vi nå <br />
<a href="http://gronnfase.blogspot.no/p/grnn-fases-energipris.html" target="_blank"><i><b>Grønn fases energipris</b></i></a>.<br />
<br />
<span id="goog_266717522"></span>Sist prisen ble delt ut<span id="goog_266717523"></span>, i 2012, foregikk utdelingen under
Technoport i Trondheim, og det var studentene Andreas Michelsen, Stian Mundal og Erik Thorp som vant, med prosjektet <a href="http://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dokumentarkiv/stoltenberg-ii/oed/Nyheter-og-pressemeldinger/pressemeldinger/2012/gronn-fases-energipris-2012.html?id=678412" target="_blank">RESolar</a>.<br />
Informasjon om prisen spres nå til alle universiteter og høyskoler i Norge, og det er anledning til å delta for både studenter og stipendiater. Vi håper på å få inn mange, gode forslag!<br />
<br />
Forslag sendes til <a href="mailto:post@gonnfase.org" target="_blank">post@gonnfase.org</a>, og fristen for å
levere inn forslag og ha en sjanse til å vinne 50.000 kr er 1. april. <a href="http://gronnfase.blogspot.no/p/grnn-fases-energipris.html" target="_blank">Les mer</a><br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04493280544812589178noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2069731235112545910.post-64844493064834925992014-02-18T11:00:00.001+01:002014-02-24T09:37:46.431+01:00Elsertifikater til besvær<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;">Av Gisle Solbu, masterstudent ved Institutt for tverrfaglige
kulturstudier, med spesialisering i studier av kunnskap, teknologi og samfunn,
NTNU</span> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<h4 class="MsoNormal">
-Hvis jeg spør deg om Norge burde subsidiere en storstilt
utbygging av kraftproduksjon fra fornybare kilder, hva svarer du da?</h4>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Argumentene om dårlig kostnadseffektivitet og usikker
klimaeffekt har lenge preget debatten om norsk fornybarsatsing. Når
elsertifikatmarkedet nå skal mate 26,4 TWh ny kraft fra fornybare kilder inn i
markedet er det derfor ikke rart at den samme tvilen forplanter seg ned til de
lokale spørsmålene om utbygging.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For samtlige
av de 8 vindkraftanleggene som er planlagt på Fosen og i Snillfjord la NVE vekt
på Norges forpliktelser i henhold til EUs fornybardirektiv II og det
kvantitative målet for elsertifikatmarkedet i sin begrunnelse for
vedtakene.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I retur behandlet NVE klager
fra naturvernere og lokale interesseorganisasjoner som knyttet usikkerhet til<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>klimaeffekten ved de samme målene, og som
framstilte vindkraftutbygging som dårlig ressursbruk.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I en slik situasjon blir spørsmålet om noe
skulle vært gjort annerledes i norsk energi- og klimapolitikk naturlig.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7aMcU18KUPHAG3M3wbPuWqOKh1TgbhuWQWA317D4-F4V4mstY7ymh8QtJ-MEXQU3lxaGyQLgOYMz9fRPNxWrg4Mq6yjqEWNXfWT9MLIfk5Add1rn0TI6yt6ZvO2KKTg6zt4juigRWMmfa/s1600/faktaboks_elsertifikat.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7aMcU18KUPHAG3M3wbPuWqOKh1TgbhuWQWA317D4-F4V4mstY7ymh8QtJ-MEXQU3lxaGyQLgOYMz9fRPNxWrg4Mq6yjqEWNXfWT9MLIfk5Add1rn0TI6yt6ZvO2KKTg6zt4juigRWMmfa/s1600/faktaboks_elsertifikat.jpg" height="400" width="398" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Blant skeptikerne finner vi tidligere statssekretær i
miljøverndepartementet og SV-politiker, Heidi Sørensen. Hun har uttalt at
elsertifikatloven er ett av de vedtakene hun angrer mest på i sin politiske
karriere (NRK Brennpunkt, 2012). I følge Sørensen var ikke konsekvensene
grundig nok utredet da et enstemmig Storting vedtok loven<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>15. Juni 2011 . At man på denne måten legger
et godt kunnskapsgrunnlag som premiss for gode politiske beslutninger er et
fornuftig utgangs- punkt, men tar vi et tilbakeblikk på prosessen med å innføre
elsertifikatmarkedet ser vi at forholdet mellom forskningen og politikken ikke
alltid er like enkelt.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Utredningsrapportene og den generelle kunnskapsproduksjonen viser en
sameksistens av ulike representasjoner, og vurderingen av elsertifikatene som
gode eller dårlige handler derfor i stor grad om tilnærming og faglig innramming.
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<a name='more'></a><br /></div>
<h4 class="MsoNormal">
Norsk kraft til Europa</h4>
<div class="MsoNormal">
På slutten av 90-tallet, tidlig 2000, begynte man å se
konturene av det som i dag er elsertifikatmarkedet. I de første framstillingene
av sertifikatmarkedet var virkemiddelet særlig rettet mot en framtidig
utvikling i de europeiske kraftmarkedene. Dette så vi både i Stortingsmelding
nr 29 (1998-1999)<i> Om energi politikken</i> og Energi- og miljøkomiteens
budsjettinnstilling nr 9 (2000-2001). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Regjeringen forespeilet en framtid der<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>”energi, og da særlig elektrisitet ble et
knappere og mer verdifullt gode” (Stortinget, 1998). Situasjonen krevde en
rasjonell forvaltning av fornybarressursene. Med et internasjonalt
sertifikatmarked ville utbyggingen skje i de landene der forutsetningene lå
best til rette og det norske potensialet var stort. Regjeringen kunne gjennom
sertifikatmarkedet sette konkrete kvantitative mål for utbygging av
fornybarressurser og energipolitikken underbygget på denne måten det de selv
kalte en ambisiøs miljøpolitikk. Et videre arbeid med en sertifikatordning
måtte likevel forankres i et godt faglig grunnlag.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<h4 class="MsoNormal">
Utredninger som ikke vinner fram</h4>
<div class="MsoNormal">
De første utredningene ble bestilt høsten 2001. Oppdragene
ble gitt til Statistisk Sentralbyrå (SSB) (2001), Joul AS (2001) og Stiftelsen
samfunns- og næringsforskning (2001). De tre rapportene hadde alle ett
fellestrekk; resultatene som kom fram av de samfunnsøkonomiske analysene ga
ikke grunn til den samme entusiasmen vi kunne finne i de tidlige politiske
dokumentene. I utredningene ble det referert til en generell enighet om at
støtte til fornybar energi ikke hadde de samme effektivitetsegenskapene som
avgifter direkte rettet inn mot utslippskilde, ofte omtalt som
”polluter-pays”-strategier. Med andre ord, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>sertifikatmarkedet var ikke det mest
kostnadseffektive CO2-reduserende tiltaket. En upresis målformulering fra den
politiske siden ga likevel<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>opphav til
også en mer positiv framstilling av sertifikatmarkedet. Hvis man så bort fra
det totale klimaregnskapet og heller vektla sertifikatenes evne til å nå
kvantitative mål for fornybarproduksjonen, <i>kunne </i>virkemiddelet være
formålseffektivt. Hvorvidt man anså et elsertifikatmarked som hensiktsmessig
handlet om hva man definerte som formålet. Til forskjell fra de tidligere
framstillingene var det ifølge utredningsrapportene snakk om økt
fornybarproduksjon eller reduserte klimagassutslipp, ikke <i>og</i>. For SSB var det
vanskelig å se hvorfor økt fornybarproduksjon skulle være et<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>mål i seg selv. En økt totalproduksjon ville
mest sannsynlig presse elprisene ned. Dette stimulerte til økt forbruk og ga et
inntektstap for de tradisjonelle kraftprodusentene som ikke falt inn under
sertifikatordningen, dette ga også tapte skatteinntekter. Koblingen mellom
norsk kraftproduksjon og reduserte klimautslipp var altså høyst usikker,
innenfor et felles europeisk kvotesystem argumenterte samfunnsøkonomene heller
for at økt fornybarproduksjon i Norge ville ha minimal påvirkning på det totale
klimaregnskapet. </div>
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<br /></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDspvjUsNtLYuXmE0TbKQZ9QUjbdgi-pZy0JxUc5iMwlmI-X_z7k636TRQg7QOWumjU_0W4gGHdnj1k6HZI_zsoEzYtKNkDOgSXDOwUn2l5Q6JmOpZU2vDYjFALQUp01lvcJwOJxkNgT1W/s1600/sm%C3%B8lavindkraft.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDspvjUsNtLYuXmE0TbKQZ9QUjbdgi-pZy0JxUc5iMwlmI-X_z7k636TRQg7QOWumjU_0W4gGHdnj1k6HZI_zsoEzYtKNkDOgSXDOwUn2l5Q6JmOpZU2vDYjFALQUp01lvcJwOJxkNgT1W/s1600/sm%C3%B8lavindkraft.jpg" height="265" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Smølavindpark. (Foto: Statkraft)</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<h4 class="MsoNormal">
Parallelle posisjoner
</h4>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Utviklingen i det videre arbeidet er interessant.
Samfunnsøkonomenes analyser la på ingen måte ideen om et sertifikatmarked død.
Fra 2001 og fram til vedtaket i 2011 kom det stadig nye utredninger som stort
sett ga de samme prinsipielle vurderingene av sertifikatmarkedet. Frischsenterets
rapport fra 2005 gikk så langt som å si at et elsertifikatmarked var uegnet til
å nå samtlige av de målene de kunne identifisere i norsk energi- og
klimapolitikk (Frischsenteret, 2005). Det manglet heller ikke på forslag til
alternative løsninger. I kommentaren ” Grønne sertifikater<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-bidi-font-family: "MS Mincho";">
</span><span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Cambria; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-hansi-font-family: Cambria;">–</span> dyr og form<span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Cambria; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-hansi-font-family: Cambria;">å</span>lsl<span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Cambria; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-hansi-font-family: Cambria;">ø</span>s fornybar moro” i fagtidsskriftet <i>Samfunnsøkonomen </i>argumenterte
fagdirektør i SSB , Torstein Bye, og professor ved UiO, Michael Hoel, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>for at Norge heller burde satse helhjertet på
kvotemarkedet og at dette var den mest kostnadseffektive måten å redusere
klimagassutslipp på (2009). Til tross for motstanden fortsatte det politiske
arbeidet med elsertifikatene.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>De
internasjonale ambisjonene ble redusert til det som i dag er en felles ordning
for Norge og Sverige, og med EUs fornybardirektiv II ble igjen kvantitative mål
for fornybarutbyggingen relevante.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I
henhold til direktivet forpliktet Norge seg til å øke sin fornybarandel til 67,5
%, og for å nå et slikt mål var elsertifikatene godt egnet. I lovforslaget som
ble sendt ut på høring i desember 2010 ble det også presisert at det
kvantitative målet stod sentralt. Lovforslaget ble satt i en klimapolitisk
sammenheng, men koblingen mellom den økte utbyggingen og reduserte
klimagassutslipp ble ikke konkretisert. På hvilken måte norsk kraftproduksjon
skulle bidra til å nå klimamål var derfor uklar. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Til tross for at
utredningene ikke støttet de premissene man la til grunn for å vurdere
sertifikatmarkedet som et godt klimatiltak ser vi likevel at denne innrammingen
videreføres. Samfunnsøkonomenes kost/nytte-analyser vant ikke fram politisk, og
i stedet opprettholdes to parallelle posisjoner i kontroversen. Argumentene om
kostnadseffektivitet ble møtt med argumenter om eksempelets effekt. Norge burde
stå fram som et godt forbilde, og ta ansvar for miljøet, ikke kjøpe seg fri
gjennom kvotemarkedet. Man la vekt på langsiktighet, og at klimaproblemet
uansett ville kreve en økt produksjon fra fornybare kilder. Elsertifikatmarkedet
stod heller ikke uten faglig støtte.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>SINTEF-forskerne, Ove Wolfgang og Magnus Korpås, viste hvordan de
økonomiske modellene utelot viktige faktorer. De mente at elsertifikatene ville
gjøre en videre utfasing av ikke-fornybar energi enklere, og at lave
kvotepriser ville gjøre det mulig å innføre nye utslippskutt (Wolfgang &
Korpås, 2012). Både Bellona (2013) og Zero (2013) har i ettertid jobbet aktivt
med å utrede mulighetene for norsk fornybar kraft i et framtidig europeisk
kraftmarked, og framtidsutsiktene synes å være gode. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<h4 class="MsoNormal">
Ustabil forskning</h4>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Innføringen av elsertifikatmarkedet viser det som flere har
pekt på som et kjennetegn ved klimadebatten, beslutninger må ofte tas til tross
faglig uenighet (Skjølsvold, 2013). I slike tilfeller der man ikke har en
samstemt vitenskapelig støtte problematiseres derfor en instrumentell bruk av forskningen.
At politiske vedtak skal fattes på et godt kunnskapsgrunnlag er et viktig
utgangspunkt, men samtidig viser den politiske virkeligheten at forskningen
ikke alltid er like håndterbar. Tanken om linearitet, der utredninger alltid
leder til enighet, blir derfor i noen tilfeller naiv. Dette er ikke et argument
for å utrede mindre men for å ta høyde for at politiske beslutninger, særlig i
klimaspørsmål, ofte må innebære en viss grad av usikkerhet. Med dette som
utgangspunkt blir spørsmålet om Norge skal subsidiere fornybarutbygging mer
nyansert. Det er vanskelig å opprette noen klare skiller mellom et riktig og et
galt svar, og dette gjør også beslutningen mer ustabil. Uenigheten belyser på
denne måten det vi kan kalle en politisk dimensjon ved forskningen (Francois,
2011). Det handler heller om å <i>få </i>rett, enn å <i>ha </i>rett. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<h4 class="MsoNormal">
Litteratur:</h4>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Bellona (2013) “Vindkraft – En nødvendig klimaløsning”, Oslo</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Bye, Torstein og Michael Hoel (2009) “Grønne sertifikater<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-bidi-font-family: "MS Mincho";">
</span><span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Cambria; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-hansi-font-family: Cambria;">–</span> dyr og form<span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Cambria; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-hansi-font-family: Cambria;">å</span>lsl<span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Cambria; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-hansi-font-family: Cambria;">ø</span>s fornybar moro<span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Cambria; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-hansi-font-family: Cambria;">”</span> i Samfunns<span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Cambria; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-hansi-font-family: Cambria;">ø</span>konomen nr 7, Oslo</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Francois, K. (2011). <span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">“In-between science and politics”, Found. Sci. 16:161–171</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Frischsenteret
(2005). Pliktige elsertifikater, Oslo, Frischsenteret</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Joule AS
(2001). Obligatoriske markeder for grønne sertifikater - Virkemiddelbruken i
andre land, Oslo, OED. 2001.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">NRK
Brennpunkt (2012). ”Et slag i luften?” første gang sendt 25.09.2012 NRK1</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Olje- og Energidepartementet (2014) ”Elsertifikatordningen”
hentet fra http://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dep/oed/tema/energi_og_vannsressurser/elsertifikater.html?id=517462</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Skjølsvold,
Tomas M. (2013). “What we disagree about when we disagree about sustainability”
i Society & Natural Resources: An International Journal, 26:11, 1268-1282</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
SSB (2001). Grønne sertifikater – design og funksjon, Oslo,
SSB</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Stiftelsen samfunns- og næringslivsforskning (2001). Sertifikatordninger
for "grønn" varme – Prinsipielle og praktiske utfordringer, Bergen,
SNF</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Stortinget (1998) Stortingsmelding nr 29 (1998-1999): Om
energipolitikken. Stortinget, Oslo.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Stortinget (2000) Energi- og miljøkomiteens
budsjettinnstilling nr 9 (2000-2001).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Wolfgang, Ove & Magnus Korpås (2012). ”Er
grønnesertifikater ”dyr formålsløs moro”” SINTEF nyhetsbrev hentet fra <a href="http://www.sintef.no/upload/ENERGI/Nyhetsbrev/2012/Gr%C3%B8nne%20sertifikater.pdf">http://www.sintef.no/upload/ENERGI/Nyhetsbrev/2012/Grønne%20sertifikater.pdf</a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Zero (2013). ”Kommer Norge på nett med Europa?”, Oslo</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04493280544812589178noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2069731235112545910.post-6381808902016844282014-02-06T20:14:00.000+01:002014-02-06T20:14:11.828+01:00Valg av maskineriløsning for skip – viktig for både reder og miljø<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">Av Øyvind S. Patricksson, stipendiat ved Institutt for Marin Teknikk, NTNU</span><br />
<br />
Omkring 80% av verdenshandelen (målt i volum) fraktes av skip [UNCAD, 2012], og om man ser på utslipp i forhold til mengde varer fraktet er skipsfart det desidert mest miljøvennlige alternativet [Nikolakaki, 2012]. Når det er sagt skal det legges til at skipsfarten samlet sett står for en stor del av verdens totale utslipp av blant annet klimagasser. I dag bruker de aller fleste skip marine dieseloljer som brennstoff. Dette er maskinerier som i utgangspunktet er lite miljøvennlige, og påvirker miljøet både globalt ved utslipp av store mengder CO<sub>2</sub>, samt lokalt ved blant annet SO<sub>X</sub>, NO<sub>X</sub>, og PM (partikler) utslipp. Om ikke drastiske tiltak blir gjort vil skipsfarten i Europa i 2020 stå for nesten like mye utslipp av CO<sub>2</sub> som alle landbaserte utslippskilder til sammen [Nikopoulou et al., 2012].<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPg9FGjNR_A534SdDeh1Qh5Hr4MSsrR66PS1Dxih_reW8HldAZJAWA-LWWx12n1ktYW4S78_roFLKNyuLlLN2-NsyuDVaHkO8Ewn8pzgBJm6owTMnNknHxw8sSh46ffNfi9nvMQ639LyRB/s1600/Forurensende+skip+%E2%80%93+pa%CC%8A+tide+med+endringer.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPg9FGjNR_A534SdDeh1Qh5Hr4MSsrR66PS1Dxih_reW8HldAZJAWA-LWWx12n1ktYW4S78_roFLKNyuLlLN2-NsyuDVaHkO8Ewn8pzgBJm6owTMnNknHxw8sSh46ffNfi9nvMQ639LyRB/s1600/Forurensende+skip+%E2%80%93+pa%CC%8A+tide+med+endringer.jpg" height="308" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Forurensende skip – på tide med endringer</td></tr>
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I prosessen med å gjøre skipsfarten grønnere er det flere ting som må på plass. Regelverk er en av dem, men minst like viktig er det å finne de tekniske løsningene som gir best avkastning for de som sitter med eierinteresser. For å kunne si noe om verdien av de forskjellige tekniske løsningens trengs det avanserte evalueringsmodeller -modeller som kan overbevise redere om at det vil lønne seg å investere i miljøvennlige tiltak.<br />
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Maskinerialternativer for å tilfredsstille forurensningskrav</h3>
I dag er det i hovedsak regulering av SO<sub>X</sub> utslipp som må tas hensyn til. Det reguleres ved en global øvre grense samt en strengere grense i såkalte SECA’s (Sulphur Emission Control Area’s), og begge disse vil bli ytterligere senket i årene som kommer [IMO, 2008]. I enkelte områder er også NO<sub>X</sub> og PM regulert (ECA/NECA områder), mens CO<sub>2</sub> og andre drivhusgasser har inntil nylig kun vært delvis regulert gjennom markedsbaserte midler, som utslippsbeskatning og sertifikater. I 2013 ble det introdusert en «effektivitetsindeks» (Energy Efficiency Design Index - EEDI) som alle nybygg på mer enn 400 GT må forholde seg til, men denne regelen er enda i en innkjøringsfase.<br />
<br />
Skipsredere tvunget til å gjøre noe for å holde tritt med regelverk, men også for å beholde sin markedsposisjon (en konkurrent kan kapre markedsandeler ved å ha en «grønn» profil). I tillegg til de direkte konsekvensene nye regulering fører til vil det også være sekundære økonomiske perspektiver som må tas hensyn til, som for eksempel at drivstoff som tilfredsstiller de nye SO<sub>X</sub> kravene etter alt å dømme vil få en kraftig prisøkning. Dette bidrar til at beslutninger knyttet til valg av maskineri, drivstoffkompatibilitet og eventuell utslippsregulerende teknologi byr på store utfordringer. Konsekvensen av å ta en gal avgjørelse kan bli katastrofal.<br />
<br />
Det er i dag antatt å være tre relevante alternativer for å tilfredsstille gjeldende samt fremtidige SO<sub>X</sub> reguleringer; gjøre mindre modifikasjoner på et tradisjonelt diesel maskineri for så å kunne benytte lav-svovel (LS) diesel; installere utslippsreduserende teknologi (en såkalt scrubber); eller, benytte alternative drivstoff som LNG (gassdrevet maskineri). De forskjellige løsningene har alle sine fordeler og ulemper, for eksempel vedrørende pris på drivstoff, plasskrav, tilgjengelighet av drivstoff, og usikkerhet knyttet til teknologi. Spørsmålet om hvilken løsning en skal velge vil gjelde for både nybygging av skip og for ombygging av eksisterende fartøy, som også må tilfredsstille regelverket hva SO<sub>X</sub> utslipp gjelder.<br />
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<h3>
Beslutningstøtte for maskinerivalg</h3>
</div>
<div>
<div>
Det er i forbindelse med denne evalueringen at mitt arbeid kommer inn. Overordnet dreier det seg om hvordan skipsfarten kan bli mer miljøvennlig, og i den forbindelse vil vi se på metoder for å vurdere hva som lar seg gjøre teknisk og hva som vil være den antatt beste løsningen om et skips fullstendige livssyklus betraktes. Per dags dato jobber vi med en modell for beslutningstøtte ved valg av fremdriftsmaskineri for skip. Uten å gå nærmere inn på metode skal det nevnes at usikkerhet knyttet til brenselspriser er antatt å være av stor betydning, så disse er behandlet som usikre parametere i modellen vi har utviklet.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Ved testing av vår modell er realistiske problemer blitt evaluert. Foreløpige resultater viser at maskinerier som kan benytte LNG, i praktisk forstand er dette snakk om såkalte dual fuel motorer som kan gå på en blanding av dieselolje og gas (se for eksempel [Æsoy et al., 2011]), har et stort økonomisk fortrinn i det lange løp. Investeringskostnaden vil være høy, særlig på grunn av de avanserte LNG tankene, men på bakgrunn av estimater for fremtidige brenselspriser vil en slik løsning være optimal om man ser på hele livssyklusen til skipet. I tillegg vil LNG ha flere fordeler, blant annet at også utslippene av drivhusgasser og partikler vil bli redusert [Burel et al., 2013].</div>
</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhao1N3qXAORUL-KWOWDPRiuNIi7G9T64DQUu7aae5g-fsVJjHGUL2ItQ7DcskfPXeu9pR1RWHaADhBRpFqu2qe509HbwNwauvuLX8MUnMck0En6SDOO2iLKsyu6QMy5zhl2IXhg9JMMsDe/s1600/Det+LNG+drevene+fart%C3%B8yet+%C2%ABViking+Prince%C2%BB.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhao1N3qXAORUL-KWOWDPRiuNIi7G9T64DQUu7aae5g-fsVJjHGUL2ItQ7DcskfPXeu9pR1RWHaADhBRpFqu2qe509HbwNwauvuLX8MUnMck0En6SDOO2iLKsyu6QMy5zhl2IXhg9JMMsDe/s1600/Det+LNG+drevene+fart%C3%B8yet+%C2%ABViking+Prince%C2%BB.jpg" height="166" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Det LNG drevene fartøyet «Viking Prince»</td></tr>
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<h3>
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<h3>
Utfordringer knyttet til bruk av LNG</h3>
<div>
<div>
En av grunnene til at denne løsningen ikke blir benyttet oftere er usikkerheten knyttet til tilgjengeligheten av LNG. I Norge er det relativt god dekning for bunkring av LNG, og det kan være helt uproblematisk om en skal operere fartøyet i et bestemt område i all overskuelig fremtid. Problemet er om et fartøy skal operere internasjonalt, eller det er usikkert om det kanskje skal benyttes i områder utenfor allfarvei hvor det ikke er tilrettelagt for bunkring av LNG, da kan det fort bli veldig dyrt å få tak i brensel. For å løse denne utfordringen er det nødvendig med en bred enighet om å satse på LNG.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Et annet aspekt som kan være problematisk melder seg for skip som seiler lengre strekninger. Grunnet egenskapene til LNG/gass vil det kreves 2 til 3 ganger så store tanker for å få like god rekkevidde som diesel maskinerier, så ved lange etapper vil det være problematisk å benytte LNG. Kan bunkringsstasjoner i åpent hav være en mulig løsning?</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Hvilke drivstoff som viser seg å bli billigst i det lange løp og hvordan den teknologiske utviklingen vil forløpe gjenstår å se, men det er vårt synspunkt at om tilgjengeligheten av LNG globalt blir bedre vil en større andel av bransjen velge «grønne» maskineriløsninger basert på gassdrift. </div>
</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<h3>
Referanser</h3>
<div>
<div>
UNCTAD. (2012). REVIEW OF MARITIME TRANSPORT 2012</div>
<div>
NIKOLAKAKI, G. 2012. Economic incentives for maritime shipping relating to climate protection. WMUJ Marit Affairs, DOI 10.1007/s13437-012-0036-z</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Nikopoulou, Zoi, Cullinane, Kevin, & Jensen, Arne. (2013). The role of a cap-and-trade market in reducing NOx and SOx emissions: Prospects and benefits for ships within the Northern European ECA. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part M: Journal of Engineering for the Maritime Environment, 227(2), 136-154. IMO RESOLUTION MEPC.176(58) (Revised MARPOL Annex VI). MEPC 58/23/Add.1. (2008).</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Æsoy, V, Magne Einang, P, Stenersen, D, & Hennie, E. (2011). LNG-Fuelled Engines and Fuel Systems for Medium-Speed Engines in Maritime Applications. Fuel, 2012, 04-28.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
Burel, Fabio, Taccani, Rodolfo, & Zuliani, Nicola. (2013). Improving sustainability of maritime transport through utilization of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) for propulsion. Energy, 57(0), 412-420. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2013.05.002</div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00529437175613012306noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2069731235112545910.post-71742387691494004262013-12-17T19:54:00.005+01:002013-12-17T19:56:32.483+01:00Elbil i en komfortkultur?<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;">Av Lina H. Ingeborgrud, masterstudent ved Institutt for tverrfaglige kulturstudier, med spesialisering i studier av kunnskap, teknologi og samfunn, NTNU</span><br />
<br />
<h4>
Å kjøre Nissan Leaf er ingen veldedighetsaktivitet</h4>
Norge har i dag flest elbiler per innbygger og høyest andel elbiler av nybilsalget i verden (Figenbaum, Kolbenstvedt, 2013). Jeg skriver masteroppgave i samarbeid med Transnova/Statens Vegvesen med problemstillingen Elbil i en komfortkultur? Sluttbrukeren står i fokus, og her undersøker jeg om og hvordan elbilen oppleves som komfortabel med tanke på våre mobilitetsbehov og krav. Komfort står her i et slags motsetningsforhold til å velge miljø, men høyt forbruk er ikke nødvendigvis det samme som komfort. Komfort er både fysisk og emosjonell velstand, og den emosjonelle komforten synes å være viktig når vi utfører såkalte riktige handlinger – handlinger vi opplever er av betydning for andre enn oss selv. <br />
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<h4>
Bilen – en naturlig del av familien?</h4>
Mine informanter legger ikke skylden på politikerne i spørsmål om bil og forurensning, men anklager i større grad seg selv, og alt de burde gjort eller ikke gjort. De forsvarer kjøringen med at det er nødvendig i denne fasen, med denne økonomien eller lignende. Det er særlig viktig å ha bil når man har barn, og bilen betraktes som en nødvendighet for å få familien til å gå rundt. Bilen synes å ha blitt naturlig i hverdagen, men denne naturligheten viser seg å bli mer åpen for forhandling. Det er mulig å se for seg en hverdag uten bil, men helst i en annen livssituasjon. Når bilkjøring stadig er utsatt for debatt, tyder dette på at praksisen ikke er «lukket», det vil si at det ikke er enighet om at problemene knyttet til teknologien er løst (Bijker og Pinch, 1984:6). Bilkomfort er altså ikke en stabil størrelse. Bilen er både venn og fiende. Bilen som en praktisk nødvendighet er fremdeles stabilisert i vår komfortkultur. Allikevel er de symbolske og kognitive aspektene ved bilkjøringen truet, gjennom dårlig samvittighet for miljøet og familiens helse. <br />
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<a name='more'></a><br />
<h4>
Elbilen – en god nummer 1?</h4>
Regjeringen har forpliktet seg til å ta klimatrusselen på alvor, og bruker ulike insentiver for å stimulere til økt elbilbruk. Blant annet får elbilen avgiftsfritak, gratis parkering og bom, og tilgang i kollektivfeltet. Selv om insentivene gjør elbil til et reelt alternativ for flere, viser det seg at elbilens kulturelle og sosiale sider er av større betydning enn det økonomiske regnestykket. Elbilkjøring er ikke en isolert aktivitet, men en sammensatt handling, som i stor grad synes å være knyttet til informantenes miljøsamvittighet og selvbilde. Dette trenger ikke bety at elbilkjøring går på bekostning av deres bilkomfort – heller tvert imot. Flere av elbilistene mener de har fått en bedre bil med elbilen. De elbilistene jeg har intervjuet med nyere type elbil (Nissan Leaf, Mitsubishi i-MiEV) opplever elbilen som en trygg, ordentlig og teknisk velutrustet bil, som er effektiv og morsom å kjøre. De omtaler den dessuten som rask, sterk, økonomisk og miljøvennlig. Elbilistene forklarer at de opplever ladingen, da særlig normallading over natta hjemme, som enklere enn å fylle bensin. Elbilen oppleves som mer komfortabel enn bensinbilen blant elbilbrukerne. <br />
<br />
<h4>
Den nye miljøkomforten </h4>
Norge har blitt beskrevet som et komfortsamfunn – en kultur med stadig større forventninger om komfort (Sørensen, 2007:20). Bilen gjør det enklere å planlegge en travel hverdag, og den gir frihet og forutsigbarhet. Allikevel opplever flere av de bensinbilistene jeg har intervjuet at det er ukomfortabelt, eller rett og slett uetisk, å være for opptatt av bil og kjøre mye unødvendig. De forklarer at de egentlig ikke er så opptatt av bil, men at det er svært praktisk. Å bidra til en mindre forurensende bilkultur synes å være en form for miljøkomfort, og dette gir bedre samvittighet. For elbilistene virker det derimot mer legitimt å være opptatt av bil, både med tanke på utseende og teknisk utrustning. Valg av kjøreteknologi er knyttet til følelser og etikk, og noen av informantene forklarer at de ville følt seg som bedre mennesker dersom de hadde brukt elbil. De setter sine egne handlinger inn i et langtidsperspektiv, som påvirker kommende generasjoners livsbetingelser. <br />
Privatbilismen forårsaker store CO2- utslipp, og det kan virke som om de komfortable bilvanene er truet av en stadig økende klimatrussel. Allikevel ser det ut til at bilen nærmest har blitt uvurderlig i hverdagslivet. Et økende press om mer miljøvennlig kjøring åpner debatten – det blir en debatt om meningen med selve kjøringen. Flere av mine informanter, og særlig kvinnene, opplever dårlig samvittighet for å kjøre, og det er særlig korte turer som føles unødvendige. Dette synes ikke å redusere kjøringen, men samvittigheten får derimot gjennomgå. Kunnskapsnivået om klimaendringene er høyt i Norge, men det er kombinasjonen mellom tanke og handling som er utfordringen for informantene. Næss og Ryghaug (2007:81) forklarer at det er etterspørsel etter mer handlingsrelevant kunnskap. Folk ønsker å bidra, men er usikre på hva som er riktig å gjøre. <br />
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<h4>
Referanser</h4>
Bijker og Pinch (1984) i Bijker, Hughes og Pinch, red. (2012) The social construction of technological systems. New directions in the sociology and history of technology <br />
MIT press. 2ndedition <br />
Figenbaum, E. Og Kolbenstvedt, M. (2013) Elektromobilitet i Norge – erfaringer og muligheter med elkjøretøy, Transportøkonomisk institutt: Oslo, (Link: https://www.toi.no/publikasjoner/elektromobilitet-i-norge-erfaringer-og-muligheter-med-elkjoeretoey-article32013-8.html lastet ned 12.11.2013)<br />
Næss R. og Ryghaug M. (2007) i Aune og Sørensen red. (2007) Mellom klima og komfort - Utfordringer for en bærekraftig energiutvikling, Trondheim: Tapir akademisk forlag <br />
<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04493280544812589178noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2069731235112545910.post-37467518015536938282013-12-02T10:26:00.000+01:002013-12-02T12:26:25.774+01:00The buildings of tomorrow are powered by solar energy<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span style="background-color: white; color: #4c1130; font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">Av
Clara Good, stipendiat ved Institutt for byggekunst, historie og teknologi,
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU)</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In
Norway, as well as in most countries, buildings account for about 40% of the
energy use. By making buildings more energy efficient, we can significantly
reduce the global energy demand. The European Union has set ambitious goals for
its member countries. In the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD),
it is declared that “by 2020, all new buildings shall be nearly zero energy
buildings” (European Parliament 2010). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Nearly zero energy buildings are very energy efficient buildings that
generate most of the energy they need from renewable energy sources on the building
itself or nearby. That is, a building that by 2020 all new buildings in the EU
will be small-scale power plants. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">So how can buildings generate energy? The most obvious answer is: by
using solar energy. In fact, it is almost impossible to build a zero energy
building without it. </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span></span></span><br />
<a name='more'></a><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Solar energy in
buildings</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The sun provides us with abundant and free energy. In one hour, the
Earth receives more energy from the sun than the global population requires in
a whole year. Although the resource is not evenly distributed around the globe,
solar energy can make an important contribution to the energy balance in most
countries. <span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">(Metz, Davidson et al. 2007)</span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Whether we designed them for it or not, all buildings use solar energy.
Passive solar energy provides heat and daylight through windows and building
envelope. If it is used as a design tool, passive solar can reduce the energy
demand of a building significantly. In a zero energy building, active solar
energy systems can provide electricity, heating and cooling.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Solar energy systems are silent, have no moving parts and require no
fuels. Once installed, they require minimum maintenance, and can deliver energy
for at least 25 years. In addition, </span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">solar cells (that generate electricity) and
solar collectors (that provide heat) can be used as building materials,
replacing roof tiles, façade cladding, solar shading or other building elements.
Such systems are called building integrated solar systems. As more and more
products are developed for building integration, they are also becoming more
attractive for architects to use as design elements. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">An important reason for integrating or adding solar energy systems to
buildings is that the buildings are already there. There is therefore no need
for additional mounting structures, ground work, or new roads. Generating
energy where it is used also limits the demand for large transmission lines or
other energy infrastructure, and reduces the transmission losses. In essence,
buildings are solar energy systems waiting to be built.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Solar energy systems can be installed on both new and existing
buildings. For new buildings, it is important that solar energy systems are
planned from the start, and that the engineers and architects work together.
Designing for solar energy can involve simple things, like making sure that the
building has an available area with a favourable orientation and that unnecessary
shading is avoided. The design also needs to be adapted to the location. For
example, due to the relatively low height of the sun above the horizon, solar
energy installations on façades are an interesting alternative in Norway. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Solar energy in
Norway – a real alternative?</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It is a common misconception that the solar energy resource in Norway is
not large enough for solar energy utilization. Indeed, at this time of year it
may be hard to imagine, but solar energy can make a significant contribution to
the energy balance also in Norway. An optimally oriented surface in Oslo
receives around 1000 kWh/m<sup>2</sup> per year. This is comparable to
many parts of Germany, which is the world’s largest market for solar cells. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The challenge in Norway is not the amount of the solar resource, but is
variation over the year. Most of the solar energy is available in the summer,
while the largest energy demand occurs in winter. Both system design and
storage strategies are therefore important. Solar heating systems can store
energy over a few days in water storage thanks, and seasonal storage in bore
holes are a developing technology. Grid-connected solar cell systems use the
electricity grid as large energy storage, exporting the energy in the summer
and importing it in the winter. However, the development of solar buildings
should be connected to the development of energy storage, smart grids, and
smart house technology.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In Norway, buildings use 90 TWh per year, most of which is
electricity. By a combining energy efficiency measures, integration of solar
energy, and smart house technology, a significant amount of this energy would
be available for other uses, such as electric cars, industry, or export. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Norwegian market for solar energy installations is still small, and
the number of companies limited. While the price of solar modules is at a
record low, this makes the cost of installations high compared to our
neighbouring countries. Enova supports the installation of solar collectors
with up to 10 000 NOK, but there are no economic support schemes for solar
cells. Based on experiences from Sweden, Denmark and Germany, the Norwegian
Solar energy Association has suggested the introduction of an investment
support of 40%, to increase the market size and reduce the cost of
installations (Norsk Solenergiforening 2013).
</span><span style="font-family: Arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKVPYW_LQX0xqc8D-MHDL0Octz_ByUJlPLRXVRyaS7XC8Rr-2djL1RJxwVBx0Hv_A5QC5lyye9kiRbZRDRM97s_OeVwQ58DrKbg-ICA9cPkEKCn5UmOBuQbYzlyPRXO8A5jE0ZfxeFgxg/s1600/Oseana.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="223" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKVPYW_LQX0xqc8D-MHDL0Octz_ByUJlPLRXVRyaS7XC8Rr-2djL1RJxwVBx0Hv_A5QC5lyye9kiRbZRDRM97s_OeVwQ58DrKbg-ICA9cPkEKCn5UmOBuQbYzlyPRXO8A5jE0ZfxeFgxg/s320/Oseana.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Photo:
Tove Heggø/Creative Commons</span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Today, there are still few examples of solar energy installations on
buildings in Norway, but the market is starting to grow. Some exciting projects
have realized recently, such as the Oseana Cultural Center in Os (figure). </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> This week, o</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">n December 3, 2013, Norway’s largest solar energy system so far will be
inaugurated: <a href="http://www.statsbygg.no/Aktuelt/Nyheter/Apning-av-Norges-storste-solcelleanlegg/">Norway's largest solar energy system</a></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-GB">The 470 m<sup>2</sup>
system at Hedmark University College is estimated to generate 64 MWh of
electricity per year. By next year though, it will be surpassed by the solar
cell system on Powerhouse Kjørbo, which will provide 200 MWh electricity
per year: <a href="http://powerhouse.no/kjorbo/">Power house Kjørbo</a></span><span lang="EN-GB">.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The future looks bright. The buildings of tomorrow will be powered by
solar energy, also in Norway.</span><span style="font-family: Arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">References</span></b></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=2069731235112545910" name="_ENREF_1"><span lang="NO-NYN" style="mso-ansi-language: NO-NYN; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"><br /></span></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=2069731235112545910" name="_ENREF_1"><span lang="NO-NYN">European Parliament (2010). Directive 2010/31/EU of
the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 May 2010 on the energy
performance of buildings. <u>Directive 2010/31/EU</u>. The European Parliament
and the Council of the European Union. Brussels.</span></a><span lang="NO-NYN"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=2069731235112545910" name="_ENREF_2"><span lang="NO-NYN" style="mso-ansi-language: NO-NYN; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;">Metz, B., O. R. Davidson, et al. (2007). <u>Contribution
of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change, 2007</u>. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.</span></a><span lang="NO-NYN" style="mso-ansi-language: NO-NYN; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=2069731235112545910" name="_ENREF_3"><span lang="NO-NYN" style="mso-ansi-language: NO-NYN; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Norsk Solenergiforening (2013). Etablere markedet for
solfangere og solceller i Norge gjennom 40 % investeringsstøtte. Online: http://www.solenergi.no/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Hvorfor-40-prosent-investeringsst%C3%B8tte-for-solenergi.pdf.</span></span></a><span lang="NO-NYN" style="mso-ansi-language: NO-NYN; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-no-proof: yes;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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thomas bekahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00090459836935272743noreply@blogger.com8tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2069731235112545910.post-12586049687653887962013-11-22T07:57:00.001+01:002013-11-22T07:57:36.674+01:00Making offshore wind more affordable<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span lang="EN-US" style="border: none; font-family: Courier; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Ole-Erik Endrerud, PhD Student,
NORCOWE, Department of Mechanical and Structural Engineering and Material
Science, University of Stavanger</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="border: none; font-family: Courier; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"> <o:p></o:p></span><span style="font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Offshore wind
has been a popular source of renewable energy for some time now, but still, it’s
too expensive to spur a large-scale industrial development. My project, which
is a part of the Norwegian Centre for Offshore Wind Energy (NORCOWE), is trying
to do something about the cost-problem.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgADC53X2tXVNbUuExm09kh37Y98sarGyXLlGmWFrt_FKTAtn7VmLqwlPb1urCisBLXPiWTWXNyVAW92KX5FTfH_eEzRMTZpp3wWjro_vF414KeSOMfyItsWTLqdjBcBDKUwEodrGimg3s/s1600/simulationModel.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="239" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgADC53X2tXVNbUuExm09kh37Y98sarGyXLlGmWFrt_FKTAtn7VmLqwlPb1urCisBLXPiWTWXNyVAW92KX5FTfH_eEzRMTZpp3wWjro_vF414KeSOMfyItsWTLqdjBcBDKUwEodrGimg3s/s320/simulationModel.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Figure 1:Screenshot of the simulation model in action. This is from running a case with the offshore wind park Sheringham Shoal</td></tr>
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<a name='more'></a><br />
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<span style="border: none; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: NO-BOK; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="border: none; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">To make offshore wind more affordable we
are exploring how maintenance costs (which is 30 % of the total cost of a wind
turbine park) can be reduced and at the same time increase electricity production.
</span><span style="border: none; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: NO-BOK; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Using computerized simulation models (see Figure 1) we are trying to
explain the relationship and interdependency between the maintenance
organization (technicians, vessels, onshore bases, etc.) and the wind park, to
understand how the former affects the latter and vice versa.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="border: none; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: NO-BOK; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">In addition,
the typical maintenance strategy is corrective maintenance; if we get a flat
tire we change it. This can result in a long period of downtime before it is
repaired, e.g., because we need to wait for a new tire, and you might get late
to work. The same problem exist for offshore wind parks, and all other production
or manufacturing system, and can be a very expensive endeavor for a park
operator. To reduce the impact of failure and repair we are looking at methods
and technologies to predict when a failure will occur, and we do this by
analyzing trends in condition data collected from the wind turbines, e.g.,
vibration and temperature measurements. The consequence of predicting failure
times accurately is better planning of repair jobs, and we can change out a
part just before it fail; but without the waiting time for parts or suitable
weather.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border: none; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: NO-BOK; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">
</span></div>
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<span style="border: none; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: NO-BOK; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">What I want you
to remember is that maintenance is more than repairing something that is
broken; it is more than just a necessary evil. It is a major cost and risk
factor for any company producing or manufacturing something, and therefore it’s
time to take it to the next level and give maintenance the attention and
position it deserves. An offshore wind turbine can be as intelligently designed
as a space rocket, but if it fail it’s nothing more than a giant scarecrow in
the middle of the sea.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Lenehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16164514321982590070noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2069731235112545910.post-1592455331918244002013-10-25T15:47:00.000+02:002013-10-25T16:05:34.310+02:00Consequences of the Renewable Energy Directive on the Norwegian energy system<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;">Project work from NorRen Summer School</span><br />
<br />
The EU Renewable Energy Directive is now implemented in the EU Member States and also adopted by Norway. The Directive has defined an overall goal for the renewable energy share for Norway to 67.5 % by 2020, which gives implications both on the energy production and the energy use. As a part of a PhD summer school project in renewable energy we have played with different scenarios for the development of new energy production and changes in consumption patterns in order to estimate how and to what extent these scenarios would lead to the fulfillment of the EU targets or not. We stress the fact that this work should be seen as an educational and intellectual exercise rather than our scientific based guesses for the development towards the 2020 goals. <br />
<br />
<a name='more'></a><h3>
Introduction to the RES Directive </h3>
The Renewable Energy Directive, as part of the EU Climate and Energy Package, promotes the expansion and intensification of the use of energy from renewable sources. In order to do so, the Directive sets an overall target of 20% for the EU and individual targets for Member States in terms of gross final consumption of energy to be met by 2020. Within the overall energy target there is a specific obligation to meet 10% of energy used in transport from renewable sources. <br />
In order to achieve a fair and adequate allocation of the “burden”, the calculation of the national contributions has taken into account Member States’ different starting points and potentials, including the existing level of energy from renewable sources and the energy mix, as well as their level of economic development. Some of the individual targets are shown in the below figure. By contrast, it has been considered appropriate to set the 10 % target for energy from renewable sources in transport at the same level for each Member State (MS) in order to ensure consistency in transport fuel specifications and availability.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiIySWHRxk5YXRpaSS3KXJi5XeVXyFTky7qxxNrb5sOT0NQy1zbfT4HJXg-53LpI-YdO2ki_A5e0wZugRqSVYEkbgTNlNpP0OWPuqvEXXstloyi7H5Omob7EFupvd0vbtor830433LMcAEI/s1600/Figure1.jpg"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiIySWHRxk5YXRpaSS3KXJi5XeVXyFTky7qxxNrb5sOT0NQy1zbfT4HJXg-53LpI-YdO2ki_A5e0wZugRqSVYEkbgTNlNpP0OWPuqvEXXstloyi7H5Omob7EFupvd0vbtor830433LMcAEI/s400/Figure1.jpg" /></a><br />
<br />
Under the directive, MS have adopted National Renewable Energy Action Plans (NREAPs) where the targets for each sector are set up. According to the NREAPs, more than one third of our electricity consumption will come from renewable energy sources in 2020 (up to 34.3%) with wind energy (14.1%) followed by hydropower (10.5%), biomass (6.5%), photovoltaic (2.35%) and other sources. <br />
<br />
<h4>
The Norwegian ambition </h4>
Norway has an ambitious target of increasing its share of renewable energy to 67.5% by 2020. This represents an increase of 7.4% from 2005 (60.1%). Because of the already large renewable share in the country, the management and extension of the renewable sector requires a strategy that touches upon both the production and consumption side.<br />
The renewable energy share is calculated as shown in the below figure. In the following we will explain the various boxes and discuss how they will change in the years towards 2020 in order to reach the target. <br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgo6L5oFegj6L3uTstbENWWwCbqI4hJE7viPRgz4IkCd2ujFjjLPqVfbilnL1knLmeRDWyjLixgp0KJGc2vkQlPtVY4adB7dfIjfFz_scMl0XNvBrYS1g9ptSr8PydljCQSmnTJSdGZE3E/s1600/Figure2.png"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgo6L5oFegj6L3uTstbENWWwCbqI4hJE7viPRgz4IkCd2ujFjjLPqVfbilnL1knLmeRDWyjLixgp0KJGc2vkQlPtVY4adB7dfIjfFz_scMl0XNvBrYS1g9ptSr8PydljCQSmnTJSdGZE3E/s400/Figure2.png" /> </a><br />
<br />
<h3>
</h3>
<h3>
Renewable electricity production</h3>
Hydropower stands for by far most of the electricity production in Norway, and will be the main source of electricity in 2020; despite that the volume of wind power production is expected to increase substantially. In 2006 the hydropower production was 121 478 GWh. New hydropower production can come into the energy system from small-scale hydropower (defined as < 10 MW), large hydropower and from refurbishment of existing plants, and it is expected that large hydropower will contribute more to the new production in the coming years than in the preceding 10 years. <br />
<br />
It should be noted that the annual hydropower production varies from year to year depending on climatic conditions (precipitation and temperature), and when assessing the trends a normalization of the data is needed. The estimates for 2020 (if a normal year) is about 135 TWh. <br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjfsqv7SS6kFpLFl6O52-wOqDzl7qTA_xkFni1GLeRUXbyAAsG91pKsBNhdC6vSNOL4A6MlUAhyphenhyphenlaKYjHQN3fgY6X5prwR0X6VuUfbWACFC5hKfBEkExeUIj9j4zFrv5LLWS2OG1B6MOqUF/s1600/Figure3.jpg"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjfsqv7SS6kFpLFl6O52-wOqDzl7qTA_xkFni1GLeRUXbyAAsG91pKsBNhdC6vSNOL4A6MlUAhyphenhyphenlaKYjHQN3fgY6X5prwR0X6VuUfbWACFC5hKfBEkExeUIj9j4zFrv5LLWS2OG1B6MOqUF/s400/Figure3.jpg" /></a><br />
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Onshore wind is an important contributor in the green electricity certificate market of Norway and Sweden. Electricity production from wind is estimated to amount to half of the goal of 26.4 TWh new renewable electricity production in the two countries by 2020. This sector is counting for just above 1 percent of Norway´s energy production with about 580MW installed (around 1.6 TWh). The projection of the wind energy production in Norway by 2020 is expected to be 7-8 TWh. The other potential wind energy is offshore wind. Norway has large offshore areas with very good wind conditions. However, some challenges such as depth of water could be reducing the chance of development of any offshore wind energy in near term. The timing for actual exploitation will depend on technology development, cost and demand. No commercial offshore wind power projects have been initiated in Norway due to the lack of sufficient subsidies/support schemes for offshore wind. As a result of lack of financial support mechanisms, it is not expected any project development or installations before 2020. Therefore, this power alternative couldn’t be an option to meet the Norwegian renewable energy goal. <br />
<br />
The below figure shows the 2006 numbers for electricity production from wind and hydro, as well as various scenarios for the production in 2020.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzKECpEZcPKFbqg4MnFKPtQIaQVTfBp3B7_rb07SK5SUaj8Gsu7vfDxuYOHqF6rBAEm0qJyBlabtlywVT6a6avOUvs4DsqQJcUQ2am0kA4lUp4xYoCTVBOSGXHa9yOU1KIgRD3_zwU0Hp4/s1600/Figure4.jpg"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzKECpEZcPKFbqg4MnFKPtQIaQVTfBp3B7_rb07SK5SUaj8Gsu7vfDxuYOHqF6rBAEm0qJyBlabtlywVT6a6avOUvs4DsqQJcUQ2am0kA4lUp4xYoCTVBOSGXHa9yOU1KIgRD3_zwU0Hp4/s320/Figure4.jpg" /></a> <br />
<br />
<h3>
Renewable heat production </h3>
Renewable energy heating and cooling (REHC) has been described as the “sleeping giant” of renewable energy potentials from the global perspective. Mature REHC technologies using solar, biomass and geothermal resources are currently available as cost-effective means of reducing both carbon dioxide emissions and fossil fuel dependency under many circumstances. <br />
In Norway, Enova designed in 2001 a program specifically for renewable heating in order to achieve its specified targets by supporting new heating plants, distribution systems for heating, and sustainable supplies of biomass. A target for renewable heat was set at 14.4 PJ annually, being equivalent to the heat requirements of over 100 000 Norwegian households. After more than ten years of heating efforts, district heating has been established in 60 of Norway’s 100 cities, and Enova has supported about 1 200 small and large projects with a total annual renewable heating delivery of more than 5TWh for heating in buildings.<br />
According to the “Energy account and energy balance, 2011-2012,
preliminary figures”, the Renewable energy for heating and cooling have
already exceed the target value from 2004, as Table1 shows. In addition,
it is predicted that the total capacity of REHC will be 22 308 GWh in
2020[4], which is increased by 27% compared with the value of 2004. <br />
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<br />
In order to increase the solar thermal energy contribution to the winter heating and take full advantage of solar energy in Norway, we suggest a possible proposal about combining the seasonal solar storage, ground source heat pump and distributing heating technology together to reduce the electricity demand in the heating system. <br />
<br />
<h3>
Energy end use </h3>
Energy end use consists of various losses, stationary energy use and transport. <br />
<br />
<h4>
Energy Losses </h4>
Network losses consist of transmission system losses, distribution system, and the losses by the harmonic power because of power quality issues. In transmission system, the losses in transmission lines, transformers, in both primary and secondary side, and HVDC system. In the HVDC, which is the most probable option for future offshore wind, the loss in high power electronics switches is significant particularly in case of line-commutated converters (LCCs). Besides, the resistive configuration of dc grid causes more copper loss in the system. In distribution level the significant losses are copper loss and also magnetizing of distribution transformers. Some methods are suggested to reduce the power system losses in both transmission and distribution level. The solutions include the high efficiency transformers and the reactive power compensators in order to reduce the reactive power losses from the generation to the demand. <br />
<br />
<h4>
Stationary Energy Consumption</h4>
In general, energy end use can be divided to industrial applications and other sectors including residential, commercial and public services, etc. The second category may be considered as lighting, heating/cooling and appliances. In order to reduce electricity demand in industries the new governmental policies can be established to encourage industries for reducing electricity usage by using more efficient electrical devices and/or processes. As another option, defining energy efficiency standards to be used by industry is also a useful alternative. In terms of home/public application, however, there are several solutions should be generally considered in Norway such as smart houses with intelligent control systems, new technologies for both lighting and heating, obligations for electricity consumption limits, and isolation. At the same time, all of the above-mentioned approaches require a precise cost-benefit analysis to ensure the effectiveness of the solutions from economical point of view. <br />
<br />
<h4>
Transport</h4>
In 2006 the energy consumption in the transport sector was 52 TWh. The largest portion of this energy consumption is from diesel oil and gasoline. <br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhnYuXo93YReYnusWXph9C1xGlzfQIqwurwJ280l2OltCp2kLWLdGlPznQ367WJU2XetxaGuc9iOS2VcRe1Xnz7lQf329VeGOEPMmdcxkTYRremo20yKbBO7gxdvRVCcMYs4QZtidJ5yz1-/s1600/Figure5.jpg"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhnYuXo93YReYnusWXph9C1xGlzfQIqwurwJ280l2OltCp2kLWLdGlPznQ367WJU2XetxaGuc9iOS2VcRe1Xnz7lQf329VeGOEPMmdcxkTYRremo20yKbBO7gxdvRVCcMYs4QZtidJ5yz1-/s400/Figure5.jpg" /> </a><br />
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Today the renewable share of the transport sector (electricity + sustainable biofuel) is about 1 % and needs to increase to minimum 10 % according to the Renewable Energy Directive. <br />
<br />
Cars are the mostly used device used for person transport. The below figure shows the percentage of passenger kilometers for each transport device.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhP9bCWTU95Wwxy_v1Eqo1cN4b-9mAqxht9JbBFF3PFSP9ws90IYrfszPn64XtykoEDzYx8r1FzOF_twk__UmW-FEQER0VgGqsjWZ69_oAIcNP3a2J0uJd6LLk3LNf51mWti5xC20pg33T6/s1600/Figure6.jpg"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhP9bCWTU95Wwxy_v1Eqo1cN4b-9mAqxht9JbBFF3PFSP9ws90IYrfszPn64XtykoEDzYx8r1FzOF_twk__UmW-FEQER0VgGqsjWZ69_oAIcNP3a2J0uJd6LLk3LNf51mWti5xC20pg33T6/s400/Figure6.jpg" /> </a><br />
<br />
As the electricity produced in Norway is mainly renewable, increasing the number of battery electric vehicles (BEV) will directly increase the amount of renewable energy in the transport sector. The measures to increase the number of BEVs are <br />
<ul>
<li>paying less taxes when buying the car (taxes on new Norwegian cars are based on CO2 emissions);</li>
<li>not paying road tolls;</li>
<li>free parking in public parking areas;</li>
<li>allowed to drive in the bus lane. </li>
</ul>
The number of electric cars in Norway was about 7000 in 2012. <br />
Electrical charging stations are widely built around Norway.<br />
<br />
The government has taken action to reduce the use of cars. In cities the public transport systems are highly accessible and subsidized. Most buses run on diesel, but it has been suggested to replace them with electricity or bio fuel driven buses.<br />
Rush time hour road tolls are not currently being used, but have been suggested to reduce the personal transport by car. If the public in stead use a electricity / bio fuel driven bus, this will also increase the share of renewable energy in the transport sector. <br />
<br />
The Ministry of Transport and Communications established in 2009 Transnova, whose objective is to reduce the CO2-emissions from the transport sector by substituting fossil fuels with low or non-emission fuels. Secondary goals are to encourage more environmental friendly transportation or to reduce transportation. Other measures are promotion of biofuels or other renewables for cars, decreasing the speed limit to avoid local pollutions, and extra taxes on gasoline and diesel oil. <br />
The Ministry of Petroleum and Energy concludes with the following estimates for renewable energy transport; the left figure is the present situation in 2006, while the right figure is the most likely scenario for 2020.<br />
<br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZ9ClP5OFSbCni02K1wEKr-opknW30mO6MSOOi2qwHuSJMdfq5xgpzA0Au5iOmq8f0AzR55SQFR53BkCGv4jiGxULfoNP2OUZblG9KqzPnQ8i9Kluny9Nu-_BEhcKswRkPblDENYYhByPr/s1600/Figure7.jpg"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZ9ClP5OFSbCni02K1wEKr-opknW30mO6MSOOi2qwHuSJMdfq5xgpzA0Au5iOmq8f0AzR55SQFR53BkCGv4jiGxULfoNP2OUZblG9KqzPnQ8i9Kluny9Nu-_BEhcKswRkPblDENYYhByPr/s400/Figure7.jpg" /></a><br />
<br />
In addition to increasing the amount of electricity for personal cars, there is a potential for the trains as only 80 % of the public train traffic is run on electricity today. The remaining 20 % is mostly run on diesel. There are no immediate plans to increase the amount of electricity in the train sector, but the technology is available.<br />
<br />
Technologies for BEVs are today present, but not widely used by the general public despite the benefits given by the government. A reason for this is the concern about battery capacity and lifetime. To meet this concern, more research in better batteries is necessary. It is also possible for the state to subsidize new batteries for existing BEVs. <br />
<br />
<h3>
Conclusions</h3>
Summing up the (expected) contributions from the various sectors, gives the following picture for the energy end use: <br />
<br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEike3fH_b4YCKK9Z9ZuShzsQ6ZME36ybK-t0M8Jj_0KR4KULby5JUhrAPzVlk4dlVdMwRxkj9xOcft3j_bJgFEEWCaqLIjqAz-osorIxntkevyV8F62HWnRXawxPZ7_1vj5pSWQplFdkdLU/s1600/Figure8.jpg"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEike3fH_b4YCKK9Z9ZuShzsQ6ZME36ybK-t0M8Jj_0KR4KULby5JUhrAPzVlk4dlVdMwRxkj9xOcft3j_bJgFEEWCaqLIjqAz-osorIxntkevyV8F62HWnRXawxPZ7_1vj5pSWQplFdkdLU/s400/Figure8.jpg" /> </a><br />
<br />
The expected increase in used energy is approximately 10 % in each sector. The pessimistic and optimistic scenarios are guesses for how bad or good the development could potentially be. <br />
Similarly we can create prognosis for the renewable energy share in 2020, where the most likely scenario is based on reports from IFE and the Ministry of Petroleum and Energy in Norway. As we see the most likely scenario reaches the target of 67,5 %, while the optimistic and pessimistic scenarios reach shares of renewable energy of 82 % and 61 % respectively. <br />
<br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBkHZtFNOKYtppWWxLNKbDvPjACeNX32Pyf9UYjuDrk754hU3xga7DhiNsbWN6_IfpAKmbJTuy0IbEVE78pn2UWLRiAf0QW1X5yk_nx5PxBw_tWM3Cx_xWsJQrBk091iENHz5-lpZVXYuV/s1600/Figure9.jpg"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBkHZtFNOKYtppWWxLNKbDvPjACeNX32Pyf9UYjuDrk754hU3xga7DhiNsbWN6_IfpAKmbJTuy0IbEVE78pn2UWLRiAf0QW1X5yk_nx5PxBw_tWM3Cx_xWsJQrBk091iENHz5-lpZVXYuV/s400/Figure9.jpg" /> </a><br />
<br />
Today approximately 98 % of the electricity production comes from renewable. However, increasing the renewable electricity production is reasonable if all trains and a larger amount of cars run on electricity. The Norwegian government has suggested to electrify the offshore sector, which would also require to increase the (renewable) electricity production. However, no action regarding this manner has been taken, and is most likely not accomplishable by 2020. <br />
<br />
<h3>
References </h3>
<ul>
<li>Renewables for Heating and Cooling, 2007, INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY </li>
<li>Enova Annual Report, 2012, ENOVA SF </li>
<li>Energy account and energy balance, 2011-2012, preliminary figures, Statistics Norway </li>
<li>National Renewable Energy Action Plan under Directive 2009/28/EC, 2012, NRAP </li>
<li>Energy in Norway, Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate (NVE) </li>
<li>National Renewable Energy Action Plan under Directive 2009/28/EC, Ministry of Petroleum and Energy, Norway, 2012 </li>
<li>Sustainable Energy and Research Strengths in Rogaland Region- current status report, the European North Sea Energy Alliance (ENSEA) project, 2013 </li>
<li>Energy Efficiency Policies and Measures in Norway, Institute for Energy Technology, Norway, 2012 </li>
</ul>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04493280544812589178noreply@blogger.com14tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2069731235112545910.post-70344091046995692402013-10-16T12:55:00.002+02:002013-10-16T13:00:51.502+02:00Arven etter Hywind<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Courier; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Av Marit Irene Kvittem, stipendiat ved Centre for Ships and Ocean
Structures/NOWITECH, NTNU<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Courier; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Et norsk
selskap var først ute med å bygge en fullskala prototype av en flytende
vindturbin; Statoils Hywind, som ble satt ut ved Karmøy i 2009. Erfaringene fra
Hywind er gode, men billig og miljøvennlig vannkraft og lønnsom olje demper noe av viljen til å
gjøre noe ut av visjonene om en blomstrende havvindindustri her til lands.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Det bygges i Japan</b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Norge, Japan og
USA blir ofte nevnt som markeder for parker med flytende vindturbiner. Dette
fordi de har lang kystlinje, gode vindforhold, men få grunne områder som egner
seg for å bygge noe som sitter fast i bunnen. Japan fikk fart på
fornybarsatsinga etter tsunamien i 2011 og sammenbruddet av atomkraftverket Fukushima
I. Der er de godt i gang med flere store <a href="http://www.windpoweroffshore.com/article/1211680/floating-turbines---japan-enters-stage">demonstrasjonsprosjekter for flytendevindturbiner </a>med opp til 7MW turbiner montert på forskjellige flytende
fundamenter. USA har også kommet etter
og installert sine egne prototyper. Blant disse er én fullskala turbin (i
Portugal) av det amerikanske selskapet Principle Power samt en rekke mindre
testmodeller (se video).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img border="0" height="213" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDA63SsRVP0MioqxGYLfgv9yi3FGgxyxKt9BJVF4wg1Jm6BVhgSy9kPCAzsPAtqAwainU0BrJFc2iVwZXbfRAz0GIDsMe1E4ZISIf5YjqsVSwDUy_13rSdDqIKNttmX4tYPDB3UK18sBX8/s320/fukushima_semi.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="320" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">En flytende vindturbin settes ut ved Fukushima. Les mer om prosjektet <a href="http://www.fukushima-forward.jp/pdf/pamphlet3.pdf">her.</a></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDA63SsRVP0MioqxGYLfgv9yi3FGgxyxKt9BJVF4wg1Jm6BVhgSy9kPCAzsPAtqAwainU0BrJFc2iVwZXbfRAz0GIDsMe1E4ZISIf5YjqsVSwDUy_13rSdDqIKNttmX4tYPDB3UK18sBX8/s1600/fukushima_semi.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></a></div>
<a name='more'></a><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/v-6jy-x134A?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Statoil jobber fortsatt med videreutvikling av Hywind, blant annet som vindpark og en testturbin med en effekt på 6MW (tre ganger større enn prototypen), men begge disse er planlagt lagt til Storbritannia (som har gode statlige støtteordninger for vindkraft) eller USA.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Norge sitter på sterk kompetanse på utvikling, bygging, drift og vedlikehold av offshoreinstallasjoner, og havvind er et av de gode svarene på «hva skal vi leve av etter oljen?». Men det kan se ut som om hjemmemarkedet har kjølnet.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
Marit Irenehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02527060432538368659noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2069731235112545910.post-86555728784080135402013-09-23T21:50:00.001+02:002013-09-24T08:04:07.494+02:00Climate policies in Norway and the EU<!--[if !mso]>
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<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">By a group of PhD students who have attended the NorRen Summer School 2013. </span><span style="font-family: Courier;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) have become a huge
problem worldwide. The global temperature is expected to increase over the next
century with potentially devastating consequences. As a part of the Climate and
Energy Package the EU decided on the 20-20-20 goal by 2020 with the intention
of limiting the global warming to two degrees Celsius by 2050. 20-20-20 refers
to a 20 % reduction in GHG emissions, 20 % improvement in energy efficiency, and 20 % use of
renewable energy in the EU. In order for this goal to be achieved, Norway set a
national target of 67.5 % renewable energy [1]. Figure 1 shows how the GHG
emissions are distributed within different sectors in EU and Norway. It is
obvious that Norway is in a different situation than the rest of Europe, which
will be reflected in the way the country plans to reduce its GHG emissions
compared to in the EU.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Figure </span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">1</span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">. Emissions by sector in the EU and Norway in
2009. Adapted from [2,3].</span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><img src="webkit-fake-url://71FB4F1E-44A4-4FD5-B1E9-E2CF540297F6/application.pdf" /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"></span><br />
<a name='more'></a><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Emission reductions<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Norway has already a high renewable share in its
energy mix, and improving its energy efficiency by 20 % is a sensible and could be possible to
implement. Reducing the GHG emission by 20 % may have different implication for
Norway compared to elsewhere in the EU. Many European countries rely on resources such as
coal and natural gas for their electricity generation. The CO<sub>2</sub>
emissions from these power plants are considerable, and stand for about 31 % of
the total emissions in the EU (Figure 1). A quick comparison reveals
that this is not the case in Norway where about 97 % of the electricity is
produced through hydropower and the
majority of the GHG emission originates from industry, transport and petroleum.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">The difference between
Norway and EU when it comes to CO<sub>2</sub> emission indicates that different
paths should be taken if the emission reduction targets are to meet. The
International Energy Agency (IEA) , based on the Times model, has estimated the
amount of sector-wise GHG reduction possible to achieve for the so called two and four degree (2DS and
4DS) global temperature increase scenarios. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">This work can be found in
reports given by the Nordic Energy Technological Perspective (NETP) and Energy
Technology Perspective (ETP) [5,6]. Among the many interesting points in these reports is that while many European
countries show potential for large GHG reduction within the energy sector, the main reduction in Norway,should mainly
come from industry and transport sectors.
These sectors are the one the country has chosen to focus on. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">The relative emission
reductions possible to achieve in Norway and the EU in the transport and
industry sectors can be seen in Figure 2 [4,5]. Here, the 4DS has been chosen as a
reference case. The reduction shown is relative both with respect to the
sectors and senarios. Note that reduction predicted to happen in the transport
and industry sectors in Norway amounts almost to 100% of the estimated reduction
over the coming 50 years. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">In EU the two sectors
represent less than 60% of the estimated total emission reduction and
significant reductions is expected to come from the power sector.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Figure </span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">2</span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">. Relative emission reduction between the 2DS
and the 4DS scenarios in EU and Norway. Adapted from [5]. </span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><img src="webkit-fake-url://25D22DF7-D439-4972-BE59-7E5A34137E6D/application.pdf" /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">The NETP report points out
that, the industry sector will realize the greatest emission reductions the
first 10 – 15 years. It is suggested that this can be realized through improving
the efficiency, investing in new production technologies, shifting from fossil fuels
to e.g. biomass, by carbon capture and storage and by improving recycling of waste
material [6]. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">According to the NETP
scenario the reductions in the transport sector will mostly occur after 2020.
The mitigation to reduce GHG emission within the transport sector are primarily
related to reducing usage of fossil fuels, efficiency increase, and modal shift
to public transport [4, 6]. This can for instance be possible to achieve, by introducing biofules
and electrifying the transport fleet. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">In NETP the 2DS points to a
20 % shift from private to public transportion system. More details on the
specific mitigations required to reach this goal can be found in Klimakur 2020 [4]
and can be summarized as infrastructural investments in the public transport
sector together with increased toll-road fees in large cities and reducing the price for public transportation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Our suggestions<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">In order for Norway to
contribute to limit global warming to only two degrees, we suggest first and
foremost more offensive policies should target the industry and the transport
sector, since the largest emission cuts
can be only come from these sectors. To reach the goals presented by the ETP
and NETP reports for the transport sector, more attention should be given to biofuels,
public transportation and electrification of transportation. This will not only
be beneficial for the global environment, but will also benefit the local
communities through better air quality and less pollution. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Policies should also target
the industry sector. The industry sector in Norway is subject to strong
competition from low cost countries and strict policy regulations for emission can
easily cause some businesses to close down or flag out. Policies targeting emission
reduction from this sector should, if possible, be subsidized. It does not help
the global environment to move industry to countries with less strict regulations.
Since the NETP shows that industry has the most reduction potential in the
first 10 to 15 years, industry should also be the first priority for emission
reduction policies. </span><span style="font-family: Arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>References<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">[1] regjeringen.no, retrieved 15.08.2013.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">[2] Eurostat/European Environment Agency (EEA) (2009).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="NO-BOK"><span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">[3] Statistisk
sentralbyrå (2009), "Klimagasser fra norsk økonomisk aktivitet, etter
næring og komponent".<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">[4] Klimakur 2020 (2010).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">[5] Internation Energy Agency (2012), "Energy Technology
Perspectives 2012".<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Courier New, Courier, monospace;">[6] Nordic Energy Research (2013), "Nordic Energy Technology
Perspectives".</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<!--EndFragment-->thomas bekahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00090459836935272743noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2069731235112545910.post-14023447966711911472013-09-09T21:43:00.000+02:002013-09-09T21:45:55.194+02:00The new combination of solar cells and super caps<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;"> Av Øyvind Sunde Sortland, Thomas Holm, Guillherme Gaspar, Denny Ehrler, Sandro Hommel and Peng Liu, NorRen Summer School 2013</span><br />
<br />
<br />
<h4>
Motivation</h4>
The share of electricity generation from solar cells is increasing rapidly and already has a high share in countries like Germany and Italy. A high share of photovoltaic (PV) electricity generation poses challenges for grid operators to provide stable electricity supply due to the highly intermittent solar radiation, varying over time scales of minutes as shown in Figure 1. The output power of PV systems can drop from maximum to a very low value and increase just as suddenly due to passages of clouds. <br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhtBbxRQOXG_liiBoIOH3BzSKDRmZJtTVfIZY3PFIwfJuvMGQZ0Bc8g4N56Ds84V5e5X6pMahe3-hxdoPzzJlbjXI63VFZym7g-HqmG8MGKfK2K2B8LVBtww6HPTMTKxMmmaQ-0FugLiZEE/s1600/SolarIntermittency.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="235" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhtBbxRQOXG_liiBoIOH3BzSKDRmZJtTVfIZY3PFIwfJuvMGQZ0Bc8g4N56Ds84V5e5X6pMahe3-hxdoPzzJlbjXI63VFZym7g-HqmG8MGKfK2K2B8LVBtww6HPTMTKxMmmaQ-0FugLiZEE/s400/SolarIntermittency.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br />
Intermittency of power production measured for a 2 kWp PV system during a day. </td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
The minute scale fluctuations in PV power supply are particularly detrimental to grid stability because they are not predicted by weather forecasts. Grid operators would thus benefit from a smooth power supply profile, which provide an opportunity for integrating short-term storage in the PV systems. This post provides a preliminary assessment of the potential for supercapacitors (Electrochemical Double Layer Capacitors, EDLC) to complement batteries for short-term load leveling before feeding the grid. Integrated household and neighborhood systems of renewable energy production and storage also have potential to provide local load-leveling.<br />
<h3>
<a name='more'></a></h3>
<h4>
</h4>
<h4>
Potential and challenges of supercapacitors in load-leveling </h4>
Supercapacitors are normally used for short-time charging (range of
seconds) while batteries are considered only for longer-term charging
(range of hours). Radiation is intermittent most of the time, which
feeds an intermittent power supply for several times a day. This could
be an opportunity for capacitor applications, which besides short-time
charging time, can last for hundred thousands of cycles. The lifetime of
supercapacitors also fits the normal lifetime for a solar module (from
15 to 20 years), and does typically not need replacement within the
lifetime of the module, which is typically necessary for batteries with a
lifetime of up to 10 years. The main disadvantages are the low energy
content and cost per Wh, the latter being one order of magnitude higher
than the batteries. In a daily range of time, the batteries are more
reliable because of their larger energy density. According to this, a
hybrid system composed by supercapacitors and batteries could be a good
solution for a PV system incorporation to the grid. in order to cover
the intermittent of the power supply in a short range of time and also
accumulation from day to night. <br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgow9Qeh8PyVUrWIoaGNuFyDTRKqlHiNMfvhxR05AOUaJVZOH7q1MslggSAQimN1y7NdHbe2NiKMvAmiu2UpcWOvIzcw_6dgnnlt16qSOeH54SMjtHJMdV7JVuXYp2GKJkRXtYpjLXEZG13/s1600/SuperCap-Batteries.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgow9Qeh8PyVUrWIoaGNuFyDTRKqlHiNMfvhxR05AOUaJVZOH7q1MslggSAQimN1y7NdHbe2NiKMvAmiu2UpcWOvIzcw_6dgnnlt16qSOeH54SMjtHJMdV7JVuXYp2GKJkRXtYpjLXEZG13/s400/SuperCap-Batteries.png" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br />
Comparison of key parameters of supercapacitors and batteries. </td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
According to Kim (2010), an efficient combination of solar cells and supercapacitors requires DC/DC conversion and a maximum power point tracking (MPPT). MPPT allow both the PV system and the supercapacitors to operate at different voltages for maximum combined efficiency. A single module combining solar cells, a DC/DC converter with MPPT control and a supercapacitor bank has potential to smooth the short-term power drops of PV electricity production shown in Figure 1, by discharging the supercapacitors during minutes of low PV power production and recharging the supercapacitors after the PV power output is restored. The high temperatures generated in solar cells poses a design challenge for such a combined system as the DC/DC converter and supercapacitors should operate close to ambient temperature in order to retain the specified lifetimes. A proposed combined module in Figure 2 incorporates a water heat exchanger for the combined purpose of heating water for domestic use and cooling the module.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMFKPHYIq2Hw_XuKcmj_FTuqNy5GZFbmhyhdR9ZDK4xEe2641dLy59z5KMH0hYnao_DTzE7bxhFNWYfLTkzffE5bTonyRJ9ZSaDbW8ALpW_8O-zoa8aSjEUZ5Xbww_ObR_gMupiWUO97mq/s1600/PV_EDLC.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="307" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMFKPHYIq2Hw_XuKcmj_FTuqNy5GZFbmhyhdR9ZDK4xEe2641dLy59z5KMH0hYnao_DTzE7bxhFNWYfLTkzffE5bTonyRJ9ZSaDbW8ALpW_8O-zoa8aSjEUZ5Xbww_ObR_gMupiWUO97mq/s400/PV_EDLC.JPG" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Proposed module for combined PV energy generation, water heating and
supercapacitor bank <br />
(area of supercapacitor materials exceeds area of
solar cells by orders of magnitude). </td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Such combined modules also minimize increases to installation costs, which currently amounts to over 55% of the total costs of typical rooftop PV systems. However, supercapacitors are currently not an economical alternative for load-leveling as the capacitor size needed to deliver energy equivalent to one minute PV power production is an order of magnitude more expensive than current PV modules.<br />
<h4>
</h4>
<h4>
Household energy storage system</h4>
Another opportunity to avoid grid stability problems by fluctuating energy feed in could be household energy storage system. This system offers the possibility to store the generated energy from the PV-system. Thereby it is possible to use your own generated energy. <br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhASeePwWwOJHrmPHNVAeGxKE0Fpt7ZNpS2YQSR9Frg8vjL4L80Y-4l3jS5Tp1hmReKYLmUaLpNu_Y3ipvX4GuRtGWYkOuIEThBUZ0DuDZG2ZpG8w7oDyxLq5j4TE5jIHPhEotKGk5lr25M/s1600/HoseholdStorage.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="193" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhASeePwWwOJHrmPHNVAeGxKE0Fpt7ZNpS2YQSR9Frg8vjL4L80Y-4l3jS5Tp1hmReKYLmUaLpNu_Y3ipvX4GuRtGWYkOuIEThBUZ0DuDZG2ZpG8w7oDyxLq5j4TE5jIHPhEotKGk5lr25M/s400/HoseholdStorage.png" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br />
Proposed electrical components in household power generation and storage system. </td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
When the sun is shining, the generated energy will be firstly used to supply the consumers in the household. If there is more generated energy than necessary, the energy will be stored in the storage system. Only if the storage is fully charged, the energy will be fed into the grid. If there is not enough solar energy for supplying all appliances, the energy will be delivered from the storage system. Only when the storage is empty you need energy from the grid. Another advantage is the possibility to build a standalone system if there is no grid connection. <br />
<br />
In the future, energy price policies are expected to change. There will no longer be just one energy price for consumption. There will be maybe three or four different prices dependent on daytime or season. Then it will be possible to do a price optimization by having a household energy storage. If the price is low, the storage will be charged. If energy is required in times of a higher price it will be provided by the storage system. The second step could be to join into the active energy market. The energy can be stored in the storage system and be sold when the price is high.<br />
<h4>
</h4>
<h4>
Conclusion</h4>
Very rapid fluctuations of the power output of solar cells are detrimental to grid stability in an energy mix with a high share of PV power generation. Supercapacitors have technical potential for load-leveling of unpredictable fluctuations in time scales of minutes and can complement battery storage over larger timescales. A module combining solar cells, domestic water heating and supercapacitors is proposed for its potential to deliver stable power according to forecasts. Currently, supercapacitors are not an economic alternative for load-leveling of PV systems. A household PV generation and storage system is an alternative in which the intermittent PV power is not directly fed to the grid, but rather used or stored locally in the household in time scales of hours and above. Such energy storage opens additional trading opportunities for the households, which corresponds to load-leveling of the grid.<br />
<h4>
</h4>
<h4>
References </h4>
Kim, Y., Chang, N., Wang, Y., Pedram, M. (2010). “Maximum Power Transfer Tracking for a Photovoltaic-Supercapacitor Energy System” in 2010 ACM/IEEE International Symposium on Low-Power Electronics and Design (ISLPED), ISBN 978-1-4244-8588-8, pp. 307 – 312.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04493280544812589178noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2069731235112545910.post-47490435638714439752013-09-06T09:47:00.000+02:002013-09-10T07:54:13.673+02:00Contributions from Smart Grids to a Sustainable Energy System<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h1>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-weight: normal;">By Livingstone Senyonga </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-weight: normal;">et.al. NorRen Summer School 2013</span><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New",Courier,monospace;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></span></span></span></span>
<span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: small;">“In the coming decades, electricity’s share of total energy is expected to continue growing, and more intelligent processes will be introduced into this network […]. It is envisioned that the electric power grid will move from an electromechanically controlled system to an electronically controlled network in the next two decades.” Amin et al. (2005).</span></span></div>
</h1>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a name='more'></a><i><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></i><br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Challenges
in the power grid and power market<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Physical electricity is traded between the
producers and the distributors through markets. The grid and the rest of the
infrastructure that facilitates the transmission of power from the point
generation to the final end-users is a mandate of transmission and systems
operator (TSO) in the respective country. On top of ensuring that power is
delivered to where it is needed, the TSO is also responsible for maintaining
the safety of the grid and the security of supply. To provide the security of
supply, the TSO is responsible and operates a balancing market on which
up-regulating and down regulating-power is traded. <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">With increasing electric power demands,
the market and the grid are facing several challenges: <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">How to efficiently involve the consumers and consumer trust in the
market.</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">How to efficiently integrate large scale renewable energy like wind.</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">How to efficiently manage congestion, especially during peak load hours.</span></li>
</ol>
</div>
If these challenges are not addressed,
several problems are likely to occur:<br />
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">Prices are likely to increase.</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">Congestion problems will increase with e-vehicles and increasing
electricity demand.</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">Environmental targets will fail with increased use of polluting energy
resources.</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">Increased need for balancing services as outages may increase.</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">Increased production, demand and waste of power.</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">Loss of reliability of the system and loss of security of supply.</span></li>
</ol>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Two possible courses of action are
available while confronting the above three challenges. One is to wait for the
above problems and meet the related costs, the other is to provide a complete,
sustainable package of innovative solutions to the market that will lead to
improved flexibility of the grid infrastructure, enhanced demand
responsiveness, decentralized production, and higher use of renewable energy. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Such sustainable power systems require a
solution that provides a three dimensional approach to the current challenges: Economic
efficiency, environmental concerns, and the social political dimension.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Smart
Grid – The Remedy<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span>
<span lang="EN-US">A smarter grid applies technologies,
tools, and techniques available to make the power distribution more efficient.
The realization of smart grids demands a change in relationships between
utilities, regulators, energy producers, services and technique providers,
automation vendors.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<i><span lang="EN-US"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEivArIXq-E1RpdJEw925FNrpQf8CTUT38npG6OPbdjwt5iOYC0lId3qAidAKRZchk0nI9H8I-5h2X0NmaJ3xq_VOj_-42q77rfYf3PzCuKcC60zRY5X4nbdhXMr0H4BZcXWKtm6e28R35M/s1600/picture.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="179" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEivArIXq-E1RpdJEw925FNrpQf8CTUT38npG6OPbdjwt5iOYC0lId3qAidAKRZchk0nI9H8I-5h2X0NmaJ3xq_VOj_-42q77rfYf3PzCuKcC60zRY5X4nbdhXMr0H4BZcXWKtm6e28R35M/s1600/picture.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Sketch of smart grid, 3M (2013)</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</span></i><i><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 18pt 0cm 4pt; text-align: justify;">
<br />
<ul>
<li>Areas of impact:</li>
<li><span lang="EN-US" style="text-align: left;">Power generation that integrates more
renewables</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US" style="text-align: left;">Distribution / Transmission</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: NO-BOK;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="text-align: left;">e-Mobility</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: NO-BOK;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-align: left;">Smart
Building / Factory</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: NO-BOK;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="text-align: left;">Integration of ICT in the grid</span></li>
<li><span style="text-align: left;">Demand-side
management</span></li>
<li><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-language: NO-BOK;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-align: left;">Demand for
storage management</span></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-bottom: 4.0pt; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 18.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">In the following, three different
contributions to the smart grid will be discussed.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Smart
Meter (AMS)<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">A smart
meter is an electronic measurement device used by utilities to communicate
information for billing customers and operating their electric systems, </span><span lang="EN-US">EEI-AEIC-UTC (2011)</span><span lang="EN-US">. It enables the power companies to measure
the client’s power consumption more frequently, without being dependent on the
manual reading from their customers. In Norway it has been agreed that such
smart meters should be installed in all households within 1. January 2019.
Initially they are meant to provide automatic measurements of the household
consumption and also the ability to interrupt the electric supply for the
specific household, but installing them will also open up for other
opportunities within stability, control and coordination on a larger scale,
SINTEF (2012).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">From the
customer's side, the largest incentive at the time is to receive hourly power
prices, this can in time help lower the peak hour consumption. However, this is
at the cost of invasion of privacy. The AMS allows the power companies to both
access and to some extent control the power consumption of their customers.</span><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US">In order
to be able to use the information provided by the AMS, there is a huge need for
communication services within all parts of the grid. Such services are not
present in today’s grid, and installing this as well as the AMS itself is
linked to large expenses. The inevitable question of “Who should pay?” arises.
In Norway today, many fear that the customers will end up paying through
increased prices, which makes the AMS less popular.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">If the use of the AMS over time is extended to include communication
and control on a larger scale, its entrance in the grid could be very useful.
If this is not achieved, the investments could be useless, and a negative
attitude towards such investments could grow. This would not be good for other
solutions with high investment costs, as they might be more difficult to
realize.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Energy storage and load management</span></b><span lang="EN-US"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span>
<span lang="EN-US">In a power system, the frequency is vital and must
be kept within certain limits. Therefore, there must be a balance of power
between generation and load. Otherwise, it can lead to a cascading collapse of
the whole power system. In reality loads vary largely depending on customers’
demand. Producers must then adjust power generation to keep the power balance
and also a sufficient reserve is needed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">In smart grids large amounts of renewable energy
sources like wind and solar can be integrated into the grid. The availability
of these sources is fluctuating and uncontrolled, meaning that more
disturbances are introduced into the grid. That makes the power balance more
and more challenging, or even impossible to maintain when the share of
renewable sources is dominant.</span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">In traditional systems when generation cannot meet
demand (load) usually electricity needs to be imported. On the other hand, when
demand is lower than production, electricity usually needs to be exported. In
smart grids using energy storage can avoid import or export at disadvantageous
conditions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">Also the demand side often exhibits a time-varying
profile. There are times when demand hits peaks while in other periods demand
is very low. That can lead to insufficient use of resources in order to
maintain the power balance since large loads mainly occur just for a few hours
a day. Here storage systems, especially batteries, are essential to reduce peak
demand of customers (when the consumers use stored energy from the batteries
instead of power from the grid) or increase production in times of high demand
(when batteries are used to feed power to the grid).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">Thus, energy storage plays an important role in
keeping the balance since energy is stored when there is surplus production and
used when there is a shortage in supply. As a result, it paves the way for more
integration of renewable power.</span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">The most widely used storage technologies are pumped
storage (hydropower), batteries and flywheels.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">Pumped storage technology uses excess energy to pump
water from a reservoir at a lower level to a reservoir at a higher level. When
prices are high or when there are shortages in electricity supply the water is
sent through a turbine and fed into the lower reservoir. This technology
exhibits an efficiency of around 80% (largely depending on who you ask and on
the boundary conditions).</span><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US">Batteries
represent an electro-chemical storage and are used e.g. in electric vehicles
and photovoltaic power plants.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">Demand side management (DSM) includes different
measures to influence the electricity demand side. Important measures are e.g.
load management, energy conservation, fuel substitution and load building, Bhattacharyya
(2011).</span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">Load management includes e.g. peak clipping, load shifting
and valley filling, see Bhattacharyya (2011) for more detailed explanations.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Through effective energy storage and load
management costly investments in grid extension as well as import or export at
disadvantageous conditions can possibly be avoided. Both technologies can only
be used efficiently in smart grids where e.g. advanced metering, control and
communication systems are available.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><br /></b>
<b>Aggregator<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: NO-BOK;"><br /></span>
<span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: NO-BOK;">The Aggregator as
introduced in ADDRESS FP7-PROJECT (2013) is the new actor coming to play in the
smart grid field, standing between the Distributed System Operator (DSO) and
the end prosumers. The Aggregator main tasks are customer clustering, storage
management and demand side management. The Aggregator uses smart meters and an
ICT infrastructure to communicate with the end users and controls and manages
the electricity loads. The aggregator unites all the small distributed
generator sources and distributes and stores the production for the demand side
management. </span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: NO-BOK;"><br /></span>
<span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: NO-BOK;">The Aggregator facilitates
the Renewable Energy Sources (RES) integration by easing the process of small
actors coming to the market. It can compromise between DSO needs and the
elasticity of the RES and demand from customers. It can introduce new services
to the electricity market like smart charging and use of EV’s and storage
devices which eases the DSM process while providing the prosumers with
flexible prices and energy saving policies. Another major benefit from
Aggregators is the possibility of local management based on local consumption
forecast and local energy production from DES. The possibility to cluster a
limited number of customers into a group gives the customers more lobbying
power to negotiate prices and gives them the opportunity to get more benefits
from the DSO. Using Aggregators provides also a good way to access to
electricity market for new and smaller investors. New schemas of investment
could emerge which include leasing/renting of PV panels, shares in stocks, etc.
All in all the Aggregator plays a major role in speeding up the smart grid
integration process, as presented in several surveys like, </span><span lang="EN-US">Gkatzikis et al. (2013)</span><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; color: #222222; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: NO-BOK;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span>
<span lang="EN-US">Several
risks have been identified related to aggregators. Security issues will appear
as long as the Smart Meter is accessible within an external network. The
perception for the user could be that some external agent can access the SM and
extract some private information (readings, consumption profile, etc.) or
connect/disconnect loads (appliances, lights, etc). Then, security should be
granted to the user to avoid adoption barriers. Moreover, in order to integrate
the SM into the aggregator network, the ICT infrastructure should be used or
built from the scratch. In any case, some cost arises. Since the aggregators
are new actors in the market, customer need to trust in these new small
emerging companies, which will be very different from the already existing big
utilities. Also the quality of supplying should be guaranteed to the users by
these new companies, with no expertise in energy demand, energy balance, etc.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<span lang="EN-US">
</span></div>
<span lang="EN-US"></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">To realize
these aggregators, the first step should be the substitution of the old meters
for smart meters, and connect these meters the aggregator data network. Smart
appliances represent a high cost for customers, so an intermediate solution
should appear, like the smart plugs (which offer the possibility to control any
appliance remotely). Electro-vehicles are already in the market, but the number
of them should increase. Then, customers would start thinking in installing
small generators (PV, mini-winds, etc.) as well as some storage system as a
backup for using or selling the energy when prices are interesting.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<span lang="EN-US">
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<span lang="EN-US">
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></b>
<b><span lang="EN-US">Conclusion<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span>
<span lang="EN-US">From the growing demand for electrical
energy and the increasing share of intermittent and distributed energy
resources, a need for a smarter and more efficient grid is emerging. For
this, the Smart Grid is launched as a solution, which includes many ideas for
possible solutions, some mentioned here. However, the ideas for smart grid are
many, and it is important to consider the pitfalls that they include. It is
also of vital importance to build up communication and control that makes all
of the elements work together in an optimal manner.</span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></b>
<b><span lang="EN-US">References<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 115%; margin: 18pt 0cm 4pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Amin et al. (2005), S.Massoud Amin and
Bruce F. Wollenberg. ”Towards a Smart Grid,” IEEE power & energy
magazine, September/October 2005, 34-41.</span></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 115%;">3M (2013), </span><a href="http://solutions.3m.com/wps/portal/3M/en_EU/SmartGrid/EU-Smart-Grid/" style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 115%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">http://solutions.3m.com/wps/portal/3M/en_EU/SmartGrid/EU-Smart-Grid/</span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: inherit; line-height: 115%;">, accessed: 15.08.2013</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">EEI-AEIC-UTC(2011),
“Smart Meters and Smart Meter Systems:
A Metering Industry Perspective” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">SINTEF
(2012)<b>, </b>“Risikovurdering av
AMS, kartlegging av informasjonssikkerhetsmessige sårbarheter i AMS” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: inherit;">S. C.
Bhattacharyya (2011), "Energy Economics - Concepts, Issues, Markets and
Governance", Springer<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span lang="EN-US">ADDRESS
FP7-PROJECT (2013): </span><a href="http://www.addressfp7.org/"><span lang="EN-US">www.addressfp7.org</span></a><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: inherit;">Gkatzikis et al. (2013), Gkatzikis, L.; Koutsopoulos,
I.; Salonidis, T. , "The Role of Aggregators in Smart Grid Demand Response
Markets," Selected Areas in Communications, IEEE Journal on , vol.31,
no.7, pp.1247,1257</span><b><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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